GRE General Test flashcards

To justify a position means to provide compelling reasons, evidence, or logical arguments that demonstrate the validity or importance of one's stance.

• Focuses on supporting one's own side of a debate.
• Can involve introducing new benefits or highlighting critical values.
• Aims to make one's argument more persuasive and defensible.

Memory trick: Justify: Show why your side is righteous and right.

To address a counterargument means to provide information or reasoning that weakens the opposing claim or strengthens one's own position against it.

• Directly responds to the specific point of contention.
• Can introduce new evidence or reinterpret existing facts.
• Aims to neutralize or diminish the impact of the counterargument.

Memory trick: A good defense doesn't just block, it creates an opportunity.

Controlling for confounding variables involves identifying and accounting for other factors that might influence both the independent and dependent variables, thereby clarifying the true relationship between the variables of interest.

• Crucial for establishing causation, not just correlation.
• Can involve experimental design, statistical adjustments, or comparative analysis.
• Helps isolate the effect of the variable being studied.

Memory trick: Causal claims need CAREFUL controls.

Anecdotal evidence is based on personal stories or isolated examples. Its limitations include lack of generalizability, susceptibility to bias, and inability to establish causation.

• Highly subjective and prone to selective memory or reporting.
• Cannot be used to draw broad conclusions or establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Often lacks a control group for comparison, making it difficult to isolate effects.

Memory trick: Evidence EVALUATES, not just echoes.

To exacerbate a negative outcome means to introduce information that would make a predicted undesirable result or consequence significantly worse, more likely to occur, or more severe.

• Focus on the specific negative outcome identified by a counter-argument.
• Introduce a factor that directly intensifies the cause of that negative outcome.
• Show how the conditions for the predicted failure are made more probable.

Memory trick: OUTCOME: Observe Underlying Trends, Consider Multiple Options, Understand the Modifiers, Evaluate.

To counter a compensatory behavior argument means to introduce information that demonstrates why the predicted alternative action, intended to circumvent a restriction, is unlikely to occur or have the predicted negative impact.

• Address the feasibility or likelihood of the 'compensatory' action.
• Show that the means to perform the compensatory action are limited or absent.
• Undermine the motivation or opportunity for the alternative behavior.

Memory trick: BEHAVIOR: Break Every Habit, Verify Alternative Hypotheses, Identify Obstacles, Reinforce Good Outcomes.

A confounding variable is an unmeasured third variable that influences both the supposed cause and the supposed effect, creating a spurious correlation and making it seem like there's a direct causal link when there isn't.

• Creates a false impression of causality.
• Must be correlated with both the independent and dependent variables.
• Often explains away an apparent causal relationship.

Memory trick: A hidden actor pulling strings, making two unrelated puppets dance together.

A straw man fallacy occurs when someone misrepresents or distorts an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack, then attacks the distorted version rather than the actual argument.

• Involves creating an 'easy target' by exaggerating or oversimplifying the original argument.
• Allows the attacker to appear to win the debate without addressing the real issue.
• Often involves taking quotes out of context or focusing on minor points.

Memory trick: Misrepresentation MAKES arguments MUDDY.

Challenging an implicit assumption involves identifying an unstated belief or premise upon which an argument relies and then providing information that demonstrates this assumption is false or questionable.

• Targets unstated parts of an argument.
• Revealing a false assumption can invalidate the conclusion.
• Often involves broadening the scope of a definition or metric.

Memory trick: Find the ghost in the machine - the hidden belief making the argument run.

A false dichotomy (or false dilemma) is a logical fallacy that presents only two options or sides when, in reality, there are more possibilities.

• Also known as 'black-or-white' fallacy.
• Limits choices to two extremes.
• Ignores alternative solutions or middle ground.

Memory trick: Don't fall for flaws, think clearly through laws.

To disprove a remedial claim means to introduce information or evidence that directly contradicts the proposed solution or explanation for a problem, showing it is incorrect or ineffective.

• Focus on the specific solution or cause offered by the remedial claim.
• Provide evidence that the proposed remedy does not work, even when applied.
• Show that the problem persists or is unaffected by the proposed solution, or that the presumed cause is not accurate.

Memory trick: SOLUTION: Scrutinize Outcomes, Look Underneath, Test If Only One Option Needed, Identify Other Necessary factors.

To strengthen a specific counter-claim means to introduce information or evidence that directly supports a particular opposing argument, making it more credible or impactful.

• Focus on the exact assertion made by the counter-argument.
• Provide evidence that directly confirms or makes the counter-claim more likely to be true.
• Ensure the new information specifically targets the core of the counter-claim.

Memory trick: REINFORCE: Really Emphasize Important New Facts, Objectively Review Crucial Evidence.

To weaken an argument means to identify information that makes the conclusion less likely to be true, often by challenging an assumption or introducing an alternative cause/effect.

• Targets the logical connection between premises and conclusion.
• Often introduces new information that contradicts an underlying assumption.
• Does not necessarily prove the conclusion false, just makes it less probable.

Memory trick: To weaken, find the crack in the foundation, not just a scratch on the wall.

Challenging a causal mechanism involves demonstrating that the proposed way in which a cause leads to an effect is flawed, impractical, or simply not applicable in the given context.

• Focuses on the 'how' of a causal relationship.
• Shows the link between action and outcome is broken or weak.
• Often highlights barriers or missing components in the causal chain.

Memory trick: The gears don't connect, so the machine won't turn.

Challenging the feasibility of adoption involves identifying practical, environmental, or infrastructural barriers that would prevent a product or idea from being widely accepted and used by its target audience.

• Focuses on real-world constraints.
• Goes beyond product features or benefits.
• Often highlights issues like access, cost, or compatibility with existing systems.

Memory trick: Many doors are closed, even if the key fits one.

A type of bias that arises when individuals select themselves into a group, causing the sample to not be representative of the larger population being studied.

• Occurs when participants choose whether or not to participate.
• Leads to a non-random sample.
• Can skew results and conclusions, making them not generalizable.

Memory trick: ARGUMENT: Always Recognize General Underpinnings, Measure Understated Nuances, Test logical consistency.

A faulty analogy is a logical fallacy where an argument relies on a comparison between two things that are not sufficiently alike to warrant the conclusion drawn from the comparison.

• Assumes that if two things are similar in some respects, they are similar in all relevant respects.
• The differences between the compared items outweigh their similarities.
• Undermines the validity of the conclusion drawn from the comparison.

Memory trick: Fallacies FAIL to follow facts.

To counter an argument that an action will be ineffective due to compensatory behavior, one must show that the compensatory behavior is either unlikely, insufficient, or less impactful than the primary action.

• Identify the predicted compensatory behavior.
• Assess the magnitude or likelihood of that behavior.
• Find evidence that the primary action will still have a significant impact despite the compensation.

Memory trick: Closing the loophole in the 'it won't work' claim.

To counter a claim that a policy will reduce accessibility, one must demonstrate that the policy includes provisions or mechanisms that maintain or even enhance accessibility for the affected group.

• Focus on the specific group whose accessibility is claimed to be reduced.
• Look for details about how the policy directly addresses or offsets the accessibility concern.
• Distinguish between general trends and the specific impact of the proposed policy.

Memory trick: Balancing the effects, especially on different groups.

To weaken a counter-argument means to identify information that makes the opposing viewpoint less convincing or less valid, often by challenging its premises, assumptions, or the relevance of its claims.

• Targets an opposing argument.
• Reduces the credibility of the counter-argument.
• Can be achieved by disproving a premise or assumption.

Memory trick: Defend your point, attack the counter's might.

To counter a claim is to present evidence or reasoning that directly refutes or weakens a specific assertion made by an opposing argument.

• Directly addresses an opponent's statement.
• Aims to prove the claim is false or unfounded.
• Requires specific evidence or logical flaw identification.

Memory trick: Refute the claim, strike its weak point.

To strengthen a counter-argument, provide additional evidence or reasoning that directly supports its claims or undermines the main argument's premises.

• Focus on the specific claims made by the opposing side.
• Look for information that makes their claims more credible or impactful.
• Distinguish between strengthening the main argument and strengthening the counter-argument.

Memory trick: Bolstering a challenge, making the opposition stand firm.

Correlation indicates a relationship between two variables, while causation means one variable directly causes a change in another. Correlation does not imply causation.

• Correlation: variables move together, but one doesn't necessarily cause the other.
• Causation: one variable directly influences another.
• Establishing causation requires controlling for confounding variables and often experimental design.

Memory trick: Causes CREATE clear connections.

A false dichotomy is a logical fallacy that presents only two options or sides when, in reality, there are more possibilities. It forces a choice between two extremes.

• Limits choices to two, often opposing, alternatives.
• Ignores intermediate options or other valid alternatives.
• Often used to oversimplify complex issues and manipulate decisions.

Memory trick: Fallacies FUMBLE logical flow.

Hasty generalization is a logical fallacy where a conclusion is drawn from a sample that is too small or not representative enough to support a broad generalization.

• Insufficient evidence.
• Small or biased sample size.
• Leads to oversimplified conclusions.

Memory trick: Inductive leaps need solid proof, or fallacies take root.

To support an argument means to provide additional evidence or reasoning that makes the conclusion more credible or more likely to be true.

• Adds weight to the premises or the link between premises and conclusion.
• Can be new data, confirming an assumption, or ruling out alternatives.
• Makes the argument stronger without necessarily proving it.

Memory trick: Support is like adding more fuel to the fire, making it burn brighter.

To challenge an assumption is to show that an unstated premise, taken for granted in an argument, might not be true, thereby weakening the argument's foundation.

• Assumptions are unstated beliefs.
• Arguments rely on assumptions to be valid.
• Undermining an assumption weakens the conclusion.

Memory trick: Assumptions are the foundation, question if they're sound.

To undermine a claim of necessity, one must demonstrate that the desired outcome can be achieved through alternative means, or that the proposed action is not a prerequisite for the outcome.

• Focus on the word 'necessary' or similar strong claims.
• Look for options that provide alternative causes or solutions.
• Distinguish between undermining effectiveness and undermining necessity.

Memory trick: Breaking down the 'must-do' myth.

A confounding variable is an unmeasured factor that influences both the supposed cause and effect, creating a spurious or misleading association between them, thus offering an alternative explanation for observed results.

• Provides an alternative explanation for an observed correlation.
• Can make it seem like a causal relationship exists when it does not.
• Must be controlled for or accounted for to establish true causation.

Memory trick: Alternatives ALWAYS alter assumptions.

To support a trend claim means to introduce information or evidence that strengthens the likelihood or validity of a predicted pattern, outcome, or causal relationship.

• Provide direct evidence that reinforces the predicted connection.
• Offer a mechanism or reason why the trend would occur.
• Show that similar situations have led to the predicted outcome.

Memory trick: SUPPORT: Strengthen Underpinning Principles, Provide Other Relevant Proof, Optimize Reasoning, Reinforce Theses.

To strengthen an argument, one must provide additional information that makes the conclusion more likely to be true, often by reinforcing a premise, an assumption, or the link between them.

• Adds supportive evidence.
• Makes the conclusion more probable.
• Reinforces the argument's underlying logic.

Memory trick: Uplift the argument, add more might.

Non-response bias occurs in surveys when individuals who choose not to respond differ significantly from those who do, leading to skewed or unrepresentative results.

• Occurs when participation is not random.
• Can lead to an inaccurate representation of the population.
• Common in voluntary surveys.

Memory trick: Surveys can be skewed, what's left out?

A flaw in reasoning is an error in the logical structure of an argument that prevents the conclusion from necessarily following from the premises, even if the premises are true.

• Often involves a faulty assumption or a logical leap.
• Can be an illicit generalization or a misinterpretation of evidence.
• Undermines the argument's validity.

Memory trick: Look for the missing or broken piece in the logic puzzle.

To justify a conclusion means to identify a general principle or statement that, if true, would make the argument's conclusion logically follow from its premises with certainty.

• Provides a missing link in the argument.
• Often a broad statement or rule.
• Makes the conclusion necessarily true.

Memory trick: Justify the steps, make the conclusion fit.

To undermine the effectiveness of a campaign means to introduce information that shows the campaign's objectives are unlikely to be met due to external barriers, flawed assumptions about the target audience, or inherent limitations.

• Focuses on the practical outcome of an initiative.
• Often highlights an unaddressed obstacle or constraint.
• Challenges the feasibility of success despite good intentions.

Memory trick: Even with a clear target, a hidden barrier can stop the arrow.

An assumption is an unstated premise that must be true for the argument's conclusion to logically follow from its stated premises.

• It's a necessary bridge between premises and conclusion.
• If an assumption is false, the argument falls apart.
• Often reveals a gap in the argument's logic.

Memory trick: Assumptions are the hidden bridges that connect the ideas.

Sampling bias occurs when the sample used for a study or survey is not representative of the population it is intended to represent, leading to inaccurate or skewed conclusions.

• Results from a non-random or unrepresentative selection process.
• Can lead to an overestimation or underestimation of a characteristic.
• Undermines the generalizability of findings to the broader population.

Memory trick: Biased samples BEND the truth.

To reinforce limiting factors means to introduce information that strengthens the evidence for, or the impact of, constraints, obstacles, or negative conditions that hinder a desired outcome or widespread adoption.

• Focus on the specific limitations identified in an argument.
• Provide additional evidence that highlights the severity or prevalence of these limitations.
• Show how these factors will indeed prevent the desired outcome or widespread success.

Memory trick: BARRIER: Block All Roads, Reinforce Impediments, Ensure Resistance, Resolve to Impede, Every Roadblock.

To challenge a claim of inevitability, one must demonstrate that there are alternative paths or conditions that would prevent the predicted outcome from occurring.

• Focus on words like 'inevitably,' 'must,' or 'always.'
• Look for options that introduce alternative scenarios or solutions.
• Distinguish between something being likely and something being unavoidable.

Memory trick: Breaking the chain of 'must-happen' events.

To mitigate a concern means to introduce information or a proposed action that reduces the severity, likelihood, or negative impact of an identified problem or worry.

• Focus on the specific concern or predicted negative outcome.
• Provide a solution, plan, or existing condition that lessens the impact of that concern.
• Show that the problem is not as bad as feared, or can be managed effectively.

Memory trick: CONCERN: Carefully Observe New Concerns, Consider Options, Negate Expected Risks, Mitigate.

Correlation means two things tend to happen together. Causation means one thing directly causes the other. Confusing them is a common logical fallacy.

• Correlation does not imply causation.
• A third, unobserved factor might cause both.
• Causation requires a direct link and often a mechanism.

Memory trick: Correlation is like two friends walking together; causation is one friend pushing the other.

To counter skepticism means to provide evidence or reasoning that directly addresses and alleviates doubts or objections raised about a claim or proposal.

• Requires understanding the root cause of the skepticism.
• Often involves providing specific data or logical explanations.
• Aims to rebuild confidence in the original claim or proposal.

Memory trick: Objections need OBJECTIVE answers.

To evaluate a causal claim, assess whether the proposed cause is truly responsible for the effect and if alternative causes or confounding factors exist.

• Identify the proposed cause and effect.
• Consider if the cause is necessary and sufficient for the effect.
• Look for alternative explanations or intervening variables.

Memory trick: Cause and Effect: Is it really A causing B, or something else entirely?

To counter an argument means to directly oppose it with a conflicting claim or evidence, or to demonstrate a flaw in its reasoning.

• Directly challenges the opponent's premise or conclusion.
• Can introduce new information or reframe existing facts.
• Aims to neutralize or weaken the opposing viewpoint.

Memory trick: A good counter doesn't just block; it hits back with a stronger point.

An alternative cause is an unstated reason or factor that could be responsible for an observed effect, thereby weakening the conclusion that a different, stated cause is the primary one.

• Challenges causal claims.
• Introduces a plausible rival explanation.
• Often overlooked in initial reasoning.

Memory trick: Don't jump to conclusions, another path might lead to the same result.

Empirical support refers to evidence obtained through observation or experimentation that validates a claim or hypothesis.

• Based on real-world data and experience.
• Strengthens arguments by moving beyond theoretical claims.
• Can come from studies, experiments, or observations.

Memory trick: Numbers and studies are the muscles that make an argument strong.

To challenge a causal chain, one must introduce information that breaks or weakens one of the links in the sequence of events or conditions leading from a cause to its predicted effect.

• Focuses on the steps between cause and effect.
• Shows an intermediate step is flawed or missing.
• Prevents the predicted outcome from occurring.

Memory trick: Cause leads to effect, if the links don't break.

To strengthen a claim about a specific negative consequence, provide evidence that directly demonstrates the likelihood or severity of that particular adverse outcome.

• Identify the exact negative consequence being claimed.
• Seek information that illustrates how that consequence would manifest.
• Focus on direct impact rather than indirect or generalized effects.

Memory trick: Seeing the specific troubles on the horizon.

Challenging a problem-solution link involves demonstrating that the proposed solution does not effectively address the identified problem, often because the solution targets a minor cause or an irrelevant aspect of the problem.

• Focuses on the efficacy of a proposed remedy.
• Often involves identifying the true or primary cause of the problem.
• Shows the solution is misdirected or insufficient.

Memory trick: The arrow flies, but it's aimed at the wrong target.

To challenge a conclusion means to introduce information that provides an alternative explanation for the observed outcome or undermines the logical link between the evidence and the conclusion.

• Often involves finding an unconsidered variable.
• Suggests the observed effect has a different cause.
• Makes the original conclusion less certain or plausible.

Memory trick: Don't just accept; ask 'What else could it be?'

To weaken an opponent's claim means to present information or reasoning that reduces the perceived validity, strength, or relevance of their argument.

• Targets the core premise or conclusion of the opponent's claim.
• Can involve showing the claim is based on faulty assumptions, insufficient evidence, or flawed logic.
• Does not necessarily prove the opposite, but makes the opponent's claim less convincing.

Memory trick: Wobbly planks make a weak claim.

To undermine a claim means to present information that directly contradicts its central assertion or significantly weakens the evidence supporting it.

• Directly attacks the claim's validity.
• Often involves showing the premise is false or insufficient.
• Makes the claim less believable or outright disproven.

Memory trick: Undermining is digging away the foundation until the claim collapses.

To undermine a causal claim by suggesting an alternative explanation means to identify a third factor that could be responsible for both the presumed cause and the presumed effect, thereby showing the original causal link might be spurious.

• Specifically targets 'X causes Y' conclusions.
• Introduces a 'Z' that causes both 'X' and 'Y'.
• Does not directly refute the correlation, but its causal interpretation.

Memory trick: Two dancers linked by a hidden string, not by their own will.

To challenge a contention means to provide evidence or reasoning that directly opposes or weakens a specific claim or argument made by an opponent.

• Requires direct counter-evidence or counter-argument.
• Focuses on the specific point being contended.
• Aims to undermine the validity or strength of the opposing claim.

Memory trick: Contend with clear counter-claims, not just complaints.

To challenge a claim is to present information that directly contradicts, undermines, or provides a strong counter-example to a specific assertion made in an argument.

• Targets a specific statement or premise.
• Does not necessarily refute the entire argument.
• Often involves showing the claim is false, impractical, or has unforeseen negative consequences.

Memory trick: Find the weak point in their specific armor and strike.

To weaken a specific claim within a counter-argument, provide evidence that directly contradicts or undermines that particular aspect of the opposing viewpoint.

• Pinpoint the exact claim to be weakened.
• Look for data or examples that refute that specific claim.
• Ignore information that addresses other parts of the counter-argument or main argument.

Memory trick: Targeting the weak link in the opposition's chain.

Percentage change describes the relative difference between an old value and a new value, expressed as a percentage of the old value.

• Increase: New Value = Old Value * (1 + percentage increase).
• Decrease: New Value = Old Value * (1 - percentage decrease).
• Percentage changes are applied sequentially, not to the original value if there are multiple changes.

Memory trick: Apply changes one by one, like building blocks on the last result.

Compound annual growth refers to the growth of a quantity over time, where the growth rate is applied to the accumulated amount from previous periods, leading to exponential increase.

• Formula: Future Value = Present Value * (1 + Rate)^Periods.
• The 'rate' must be annual if 'periods' are years.
• Differs from simple interest, which only applies to the initial principal.

Memory trick: Compounding grows like a snowball, adding more to its own mass.

A ratio compares two quantities, while a proportion states that two ratios are equal, often used to find an unknown quantity.

• Ratios can be written as a:b, a/b, or 'a to b'.
• A proportion is an equation that sets two ratios equal.
• Cross-multiplication is a common method to solve proportions.

Memory trick: Ratios are like recipes, keep the ingredients proportional.

The process of converting a real-world scenario described in words into mathematical equations using variables to represent unknown quantities.

• Assign variables to unknown quantities.
• Translate keywords into mathematical operations (e.g., 'twice as long' means 2x, 'less than' means subtraction).
• Formulate equations based on the relationships given in the problem.
• Solve the equations to find the values of the variables.

Memory trick: Read, Define, Formulate, Solve, Check: the algebraic quest.