FAA Flight Instructor Airplane (FIA) flashcards

Rate of climb (fpm) measures vertical speed over time; climb gradient (ft/nm) measures altitude gained per horizontal distance and depends on groundspeed.

• Gradient (ft/nm) = ROC × 60 ÷ GS
• Same ROC gives different gradients at different groundspeeds
• Obstacle clearance charts use gradient, not ROC alone
• Slower groundspeed steepens the climb gradient for a given ROC

Memory trick: 'Rate is time, gradient is ground' — two different climb yardsticks.

Loading the CG toward the forward limit increases stability but raises stall speed and elevator control forces needed to flare or round out.

• Forward CG increases stability (more resistant to pitch upsets)
• Raises stall speed slightly due to increased tail download
• Requires more back-elevator force to flare for landing

Memory trick: Forward = Firm and Fast (stall speed up)

Ahead of a warm front, clouds lower and thicken progressively (cirrus→altostratus→nimbostratus) with steady precipitation; passage brings clearing, warming, and a wind shift.

• Gradual, widespread cloud lowering precedes the front
• Steady rain or drizzle is typical ahead of the surface front
• Passage brings warming temps and a veering wind shift

Memory trick: Warm fronts creep, cold fronts leap

An oxygen delivery system that senses the start of inhalation and delivers a metered oxygen pulse only during that phase of breathing, conserving oxygen compared to continuous-flow systems.

• Triggered by inhalation sensor
• Conserves oxygen supply, extending duration
• Commonly used with nasal cannula for cost/comfort at moderate altitudes

Memory trick: Pulse-demand 'sips' oxygen only when you inhale

An ADIZ is airspace over land or water in which aircraft identification is required for national security, per 14 CFR Part 99.

• VFR aircraft must file a DVFR flight plan before penetrating an ADIZ
• Two-way radio communication must be maintained
• Transponder with altitude reporting (Mode C) is required

Memory trick: 'ADIZ = Always Declare, Identify, Zap-transponder'

Obstruction symbols on sectional charts display height above mean sea level (MSL) as the larger number and height above ground level (AGL) in parentheses beneath it.

• MSL height listed first, without parentheses
• AGL height listed second, in parentheses
• Symbol shape/size indicates obstruction type and height category

Memory trick: 'Big number up top is MSL sky-high; small parenthesis is Above Ground Level.'

A type of special use airspace depicted with an 'A-' designator, indicating high volumes of pilot training or unusual aerial activity; entry is not restricted but caution is advised.

• No ATC clearance required to enter.
• Both civilian and military traffic must see-and-avoid.
• Charted with a magenta or blue outline and 'A-' number.

Memory trick: 'Alert = A for Awareness, not Authorization.'

The elevation figure printed in each quadrangle of a sectional chart, representing the highest known feature plus a safety buffer, rounded up to the next 100-foot increment.

• Printed as two large and two small digits (e.g., '5⁷' = 5,700 ft).
• Buffer accounts for man-made obstacles and vegetation.
• Not a legal minimum altitude, but a planning safety reference.

Memory trick: 'MEF: highest feature plus buffer, rounded up like rounding up a bill.'

Some airplanes have a maximum landing weight lower than maximum takeoff weight; pilots may need to burn fuel before landing to comply.

• Excess weight (lb) ÷ fuel weight per gallon = gallons to burn
• Gallons to burn ÷ fuel flow rate = time required
• Applies mainly to larger/turbine aircraft, but tested conceptually for all pilots

Memory trick: Burn it down before you touch the ground.

A small movable surface on a control surface's trailing edge that aerodynamically holds the control surface in a set position, relieving pilot control pressure.

• Deflects opposite the desired control surface movement to hold position
• Reduces pilot workload without acting as primary flight control
• Other tab types include servo, balance, and anti-servo tabs

Memory trick: A trim tab is a tiny helper holding the big surface steady so your arm can rest

A float-type sender in each fuel tank moves a variable resistor connected to a cockpit gauge; by regulation, the gauge is only required to be accurate at the empty (zero) reading.

• 14 CFR 23.1337 requires accuracy only at zero (empty)
• Gauges may be inaccurate at other fuel levels
• Pilots should cross-check fuel state using time and fuel flow calculations

Memory trick: Zero is the only guarantee — trust the gauge at empty, not in between.

Charted areas where parachute operations occur regularly; details on schedule and altitude are found in the Chart Supplement.

• Symbol shown on sectional charts
• Detailed schedule in Chart Supplement
• Pilots should remain vigilant near active jump areas

Memory trick: 'Symbol shows where, Supplement shows when'

An aft CG decreases longitudinal stability (shorter tail moment arm) and slightly lowers stall speed, but increases spin/stall recovery difficulty.

• Aft CG = shorter tail arm = less stability
• Aft CG = less tail download needed = lower stall AOA/speed
• Aft CG increases risk of unrecoverable spins

Memory trick: Aft CG = 'tail loses its grip' on stability

An airplane's empty weight CG is determined by weighing it on scales at each wheel and computing the total moment divided by total weight, a required step in establishing the weight and balance data.

• Each scale reading is a weight at a known arm (wheel location)
• Total moment = sum of (weight × arm) for each wheel
• Empty weight CG = total moment ÷ total weight

Memory trick: Three scales, three arms, one CG — sum the moments to see.

A ground reference maneuver requiring continuous bank adjustment to maintain a constant radius from a point on the ground despite wind drift.

• Steepest bank occurs downwind (highest groundspeed)
• Shallowest bank occurs upwind (lowest groundspeed)
• Bank angle changes continuously, never fixed
• Maintains a constant distance/altitude throughout

Memory trick: 'Downwind = dive the bank in steep, upwind = ease it back.'

Before each solo cross-country flight (other than repeated flights over an approved route), an instructor must review the flight planning and endorse the student's logbook for that specific flight.

• Endorsement is flight-specific, not certificate-based
• Instructor reviews route, weather, performance planning first
• Different from the repeated-route endorsement under 61.93(b)(1)
• Endorsement is entered in the student's logbook, not aircraft records

Memory trick: 'One flight, one endorsement' — each new cross-country needs its own logbook sign-off.

An uncommanded, continuous movement of the trim system caused by an electrical or mechanical fault, requiring the pilot to overpower the controls and isolate the trim system electrically.

• Overpower the control forces first with manual flight controls
• Pull the trim system circuit breaker to isolate the fault
• Use manual trim wheel afterward and land as soon as practicable

Memory trick: Overpower, then pull the plug — isolate the runaway trim.

Under 91.159, VFR flights more than 3,000 ft AGL below 18,000 MSL must fly odd-thousand+500 ft for magnetic courses 0°-179° and even-thousand+500 ft for 180°-359°.

• Applies only above 3,000 ft AGL
• Based on magnetic course, not heading
• Add 500 ft to the appropriate thousand

Memory trick: 'Odd East, Even West' plus 500 feet.

The load factor imposed during a coordinated, constant-altitude turn is calculated as 1 divided by the cosine of the bank angle.

• 45° bank ≈ 1.41 G
• 60° bank = 2.0 G
• Stall speed increases as the square root of the load factor

Memory trick: 'Sixty means double' — 60° bank always yields 2 G's.

The self-sustaining rolling and yawing motion of a fully developed spin, driven by the descending wing's higher AOA/more drag/less lift versus the ascending wing's lower AOA/more lift/less drag.

• Occurs after a stall combined with yaw
• Continues until control inputs break the lift/drag imbalance
• Recovery requires opposite rudder, forward elevator/reduced back pressure, and neutral ailerons

Memory trick: Autorotation = the spin's engine that keeps itself turning

Lift, weight, thrust, and drag are the four forces acting on an airplane; in steady, unaccelerated flight they exist in equilibrium pairs.

• Lift opposes weight
• Thrust opposes drag
• Equilibrium exists only in unaccelerated flight
• Any imbalance causes acceleration in that force's direction

Memory trick: L-W-T-D: 'Lazy Weekends Take Discipline' balance in level flight

A student pilot must receive specific training and an instructor endorsement to solo within Class B airspace, plus an additional endorsement for certain listed Class B airports.

• Endorsement required for Class B solo operations
• Additional airport-specific endorsement needed for 91.131(b)(1) airports
• Training must cover that airspace's unique procedures

Memory trick: Big airspace, big paperwork — two endorsements for Class B solos.

Required before acting as PIC of a tailwheel airplane, obtained via logbook endorsement after training and proficiency demonstration.

• Requires training in normal/crosswind TO&L, wheel landings, and go-arounds
• Endorsement is logged, not a separate rating
• Grandfather clause exists for pilots who logged tailwheel PIC time before April 15, 1991

Memory trick: Tailwheel = train the tail before you fly it solo.

Extending flaps to the recommended short-field setting increases lift at lower speeds, reducing takeoff ground roll, though excessive flap deflection can increase drag and reduce climb performance after liftoff.

• Recommended flap setting balances lift increase against drag increase
• Too much flap can shorten ground roll but hurt climb gradient over obstacles
• POH performance charts specify the exact flap setting for short-field procedures

Memory trick: A little flap gets you off the ground fast, but too much flap slows the climb at last.

Oil pressure indicates lubrication adequacy; oil temperature indicates the engine's thermal state. High temperature with normal pressure usually points to a cooling deficiency rather than a lubrication fault.

• Low oil pressure with high temperature suggests worn bearings or oil starvation
• High temperature with normal pressure suggests cooling airflow or oil quantity issues
• Cowl flaps, oil cooler, and ambient temperature all affect oil temperature

Memory trick: Pressure protects, temperature tells the heat story

Small vane-like devices mounted on the upper wing surface that create controlled vortices to re-energize the boundary layer, delaying flow separation and increasing the stall angle of attack.

• Mix high-energy outer airflow into the slower boundary layer
• Slightly increase parasite drag at cruise speeds
• Often used to lower stall speed or improve control effectiveness at high AOA

Memory trick: Vortex generators are tiny blenders stirring fresh energy into a tired boundary layer

PIREPs classify turbulence as light, moderate, severe, or extreme based on aircraft response and occupant effects.

• Moderate: definite strain against seatbelts, loose objects dislodged
• Severe: aircraft may be momentarily out of control
• Extreme: structural damage possible

Memory trick: Light bumps, Moderate strain, Severe out-of-control, Extreme damage

A governor uses engine oil pressure, modulated by a flyweight-driven pilot valve, to adjust propeller blade pitch and maintain a selected RPM regardless of airspeed or power changes.

• Oil-to-increase-pitch is common in single-engine designs
• High oil pressure = coarse pitch = lower RPM
• Low oil pressure = fine pitch = higher RPM (counterweights/springs return blades)

Memory trick: High oil = High(coarse) pitch; Low oil = Low(fine) pitch = high RPM

Load factor is the ratio of lift to aircraft weight and increases with bank angle in a level turn according to n = 1/cos(bank angle).

• 30° bank = 1.15 G
• 45° bank = 1.41 G
• 60° bank = 2.0 G
• 75° bank = 3.86 G

Memory trick: '60 gets you 2' — steep bank doubles your weight

A flight instructor may log PIC time for any flight in which they act as the required instructor of record, even if not manipulating the controls, as long as they are rated in that aircraft.

• Applies when instructor is 'acting as PIC' by regulation/operational necessity
• Independent of who is the sole manipulator of controls
• Student simultaneously logs the time as dual received

Memory trick: 'Instructing = commanding' — CFIs log PIC even hands-off.

A rapid, usually well-damped longitudinal oscillation involving changes in angle of attack at essentially constant airspeed, occurring shortly after a pitch disturbance.

• High frequency, short duration (seconds)
• AOA changes while airspeed stays nearly constant
• Contrasts with phugoid: phugoid is slow, long-period, airspeed/altitude trade at ~constant AOA

Memory trick: Short period = quick jolt and settle; phugoid = slow, lazy rollercoaster.

When the CDI is centered with a FROM flag, the OBS setting directly indicates the magnetic radial the aircraft currently occupies relative to the VOR station.

• FROM + centered CDI = current radial equals OBS setting
• TO + centered CDI = OBS setting is the course TO the station (reciprocal of radial)
• Radials are always numbered outward from the station

Memory trick: 'FROM means From-Here — the OBS number IS your radial.'

Ramp (or taxi) weight includes fuel that will be burned during start, taxi, and runup; takeoff weight is ramp weight minus that fuel burn, and must not exceed max takeoff weight.

• Ramp weight = takeoff weight + taxi/runup fuel
• Typical taxi fuel burn is a few pounds for small GA aircraft
• Max takeoff weight is the limiting structural/performance value
• Pilots must verify takeoff weight, not just ramp weight, is within limits

Memory trick: 'Ramp minus taxi burn equals takeoff' — weight shrinks before you fly.

Turbulence occurring downwind of mountain ranges when strong stable winds flow perpendicular to the terrain, creating oscillating wave patterns.

• Requires strong wind (typically 25+ kt) roughly perpendicular to the ridge
• Stable atmosphere is necessary for wave formation
• Indicated by standing lenticular clouds and rotor clouds near the surface

Memory trick: Lenticular clouds look like flying saucers parked over the mountains

Hail forms when strong thunderstorm updrafts repeatedly cycle ice particles through supercooled layers, adding layers of ice until the stone falls.

• Requires strong updrafts found in the mature stage
• Larger hail indicates stronger updrafts
• Layered structure of a hailstone reflects multiple freeze cycles

Memory trick: Hail is built like an onion—layer by layer riding the elevator up and down

An instrument that displays the wing's angle of attack relative to the critical (stalling) angle, providing a stall margin indication independent of airspeed, weight, or bank angle.

• Stall always occurs at the same critical AOA, regardless of airspeed, weight, or bank
• AOA indicators use vanes or pressure differential sensors on the wing/fuselage
• Provides more consistent stall margin awareness than airspeed alone during maneuvering

Memory trick: AOA doesn't care how heavy or how banked—it just watches the angle

A narrow, fast-moving band of active thunderstorms, often forming ahead of a cold front, capable of producing severe weather.

• Can form 50-300 miles ahead of the actual cold front
• Often produces severe turbulence, hail, and damaging straight-line winds
• Can develop with little apparent relationship to the front's position

Memory trick: Squall line sneaks ahead of the front like a scout squad of severe storms

Federal regulation requiring each occupant to wear an approved parachute whenever an aircraft exceeds a 60° bank or a 30° nose-up/nose-down pitch attitude, with limited training exceptions.

• Threshold: bank > 60° or pitch > 30° from horizon
• Exception exists for certain flight training under 91.307(d), such as spins for CFI certification
• Parachute must be worn, not merely carried, during the maneuver

Memory trick: 'Sixty and thirty, wear your party (parachute)' when banking or pitching past those limits.

DME measures the direct line-of-sight (slant-range) distance to a station, not actual ground distance; this causes a reading discrepancy that is most pronounced directly over or very near the station at altitude.

• 6,076 feet = 1 nautical mile.
• Slant-range error is greatest when close to the station at high altitude.
• Error becomes negligible at greater horizontal distances from the station.

Memory trick: 'DME sees a slanted line, not a straight ground line — closer you are, bigger the lie.'

Uncontrolled, explosive combustion of the fuel-air mixture in the cylinder, occurring after normal ignition but before the flame front arrives, caused by excessive heat and pressure.

• Common causes: low-octane fuel, excessive lean mixture at high power, high manifold pressure with low RPM
• Can cause severe engine damage (holed pistons)
• Corrected by enriching mixture, reducing power, and increasing airspeed for cooling

Memory trick: LEAN + HOT + HIGH POWER = BOOM before the spark's turn.

Standard service volumes (T, L, H) define the reliable reception range and altitude of a VOR facility.

• T (Terminal): 25 NM up to 12,000 ft AGL
• L (Low): 40 NM up to 18,000 ft AGL
• H (High): 40/100/130 NM depending on altitude band

Memory trick: 'High flyers get 130 miles of trust' — H class VOR = 130 NM up high

Excess power (power available minus power required) determines climb capability; where the two curves intersect, excess power is zero, defining the absolute ceiling.

• Excess power drives rate of climb
• Curves converge at absolute ceiling
• Service ceiling occurs slightly below, at 100 fpm excess capability

Memory trick: Where the lines meet, climbing is beat

Required by 61.31(e) before acting as PIC of an airplane with retractable gear, flaps, and controllable-pitch propeller (or turbojet powered).

• Requires retractable gear + flaps + controllable-pitch prop, or turbojet power
• Endorsement must be logged after ground and flight training
• Separate from high-performance and tailwheel endorsements

Memory trick: Complex = 'gear up, flaps down, prop that pitches.'

A maneuver tracing a figure-8 pattern using two ground reference points 45° either side of entry heading, in which airspeed, altitude, and bank continuously change.

• No constant radius, rate, airspeed, or bank held
• Uses two reference points 45° off entry heading
• Develops feel for changing control pressures at varying airspeeds

Memory trick: Lazy eight = 'lazy river,' nothing stays constant, it just flows.

A given wing always stalls at the same critical angle of attack regardless of weight, airspeed, or bank angle; only the indicated airspeed at stall changes.

• Critical AOA fixed by wing design and configuration
• Stall speed varies with weight/load factor, not AOA
• Flaps change the critical AOA value for that configuration

Memory trick: Same angle, different speed — stall doesn't care about weight

A potentially divergent, self-excited oscillation of a control surface or structure caused by the interaction of aerodynamic, inertial, and elastic forces, most likely at high airspeeds.

• Occurs when aerodynamic forces overcome structural damping
• Can grow rapidly in amplitude and cause structural failure
• Vne is set with margin to avoid the onset of flutter

Memory trick: Flutter is the flag flapping wildly right before it tears — faster air, worse shake.

A normally aspirated (non-turbocharged) reciprocating engine loses power as density altitude increases because thinner air reduces the mass of the fuel/air charge available for combustion.

• Rule of thumb: approximately 3% power loss per 1,000 ft increase in density altitude.
• Reduced power available directly increases takeoff and climb distances.
• Turbocharged engines can maintain rated power up to their critical altitude, unlike normally aspirated engines.

Memory trick: Think in thousands: 3% gone for each thousand feet you climb.

Ice can form in a carburetor's venturi and throttle valve area due to fuel vaporization cooling and pressure drop, even in above-freezing outside air temperatures with high relative humidity.

• Can occur between roughly 20°F and 70°F OAT
• High relative humidity increases risk even without visible moisture
• Most likely at reduced power/glide/descent settings

Memory trick: Even warm damp air can freeze the carb's air

An aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; the overtaking aircraft must alter course to the right and pass well clear, regardless of category of aircraft.

• Overtaken aircraft always has right-of-way
• Overtaking aircraft turns right, never left
• Applies regardless of aircraft category

Memory trick: Overtaking? Always turn right, like passing a car on the highway shoulder.

The maximum altitude at which a turbocharged or supercharged engine can still produce its full rated power/manifold pressure; above it, power output decreases with further climb.

• Applies specifically to forced-induction (turbo/supercharged) engines
• Above critical altitude, manifold pressure can no longer be maintained at rated value
• Naturally aspirated engines lose power steadily with altitude and have no critical altitude

Memory trick: Critical altitude: the turbo's tipping point where power starts to droop.

A downslope wind caused by cold, dense air flowing from higher to lower terrain under gravity, most common overnight in mountain valleys.

• Forms from radiational cooling on slopes at night
• Cold air is denser and drains downhill by gravity
• Typically weakens or stops after sunrise heating begins

Memory trick: Katabatic = 'Cat-abatic' cold air creeping down the mountain like a cat sneaking downhill at night

A recurrent training requirement every 24 calendar months consisting of at least 1 hour flight and 1 hour ground training, ending in a logbook endorsement.

• Required every 24 calendar months
• Minimum 1 hour flight + 1 hour ground training
• Given by an authorized instructor
• Endorsement required in logbook

Memory trick: Every 2 years, review before you fly clear.

When the pitot tube is blocked but its drain hole remains open, the airspeed indicator reads zero because pressure cannot build in the pitot line.

• Drain hole open + pitot blocked = ASI reads zero
• Drain hole blocked + pitot blocked = ASI acts like altimeter
• Static port blockage affects both ASI and altimeter differently

Memory trick: 'Open drain lets the pressure drain away—needle stays at zero'

Class B airspace requires a specific ATC clearance prior to entry, along with an operable Mode C transponder and, for student pilots, specific endorsements.

• ATC clearance required, not just radio contact
• Mode C transponder required within and above the airspace
• Student pilots need specific training and logbook endorsement per 91.131

Memory trick: 'B' is for 'By Clearance Only'

Rate of climb depends on the excess power available beyond what is required for level flight; ROC (fpm) = 33,000 × excess hp ÷ weight (lb).

• Excess power = power available − power required
• ROC (fpm) = 33,000 × excess hp ÷ weight
• Zero excess power occurs at absolute ceiling
• More excess power or lighter weight increases climb rate

Memory trick: 'Extra power lifts you faster, extra weight drags you down.'

A centered CDI with a TO flag means flying the selected course leads to the station; the aircraft's actual radial is the reciprocal of that course.

• Radial = reciprocal of centered TO course.
• FROM indication means the selected course matches the current radial.
• Radials always radiate outward from the station.

Memory trick: 'TO means turn it around' — flip 180° to find your radial.

Aviation gasoline (avgas) is standardized at 6 lb per gallon for weight and balance calculations, unless actual weight data is available.

• Avgas = 6 lb/gal
• Jet fuel ≈ 6.7-6.8 lb/gal (varies)
• Oil ≈ 7.5 lb/gal
• Actual fuel weight can vary slightly with temperature

Memory trick: 'Six for gas' — avgas weighs 6 lb per gallon.

When a target CG is known, the moment equation can be rearranged to solve for the arm of an added item: Arm = (Target Moment − Existing Moment) ÷ Added Weight.

• Target moment = desired total weight × desired CG
• Existing moment = current weight × current CG
• Required arm = moment needed ÷ weight of item being added

Memory trick: Work backward from the target moment to find where it must sit

Specific range is the distance traveled per unit of fuel (nm/gal), calculated as true airspeed divided by fuel flow; it typically improves at higher altitudes for normally aspirated engines up to a point.

• Specific range (nm/gal) = TAS ÷ fuel flow (GPH)
• Higher altitudes often improve TAS while fuel flow may decrease slightly
• Better specific range means more distance per gallon of fuel
• Used to select the most fuel-efficient cruise altitude

Memory trick: 'Speed over fuel burn tells you the true bargain altitude.'

At high angles of attack, rudder—not aileron—should be used to counteract yaw and prevent a spin entry during stall recovery.

• Aileron can increase adverse yaw near critical AOA
• Rudder is the primary control for directional correction at high AOA
• Reducing angle of attack is the first priority in any stall recovery
• Coordinated rudder use helps prevent spin entry

Memory trick: 'Feet fix the yaw, hands wait for the roll' — rudder first near the stall.