FAA Flight Instructor Airplane (FIA) flashcards

The total drag curve is the sum of parasite drag (increasing with speed²) and induced drag (decreasing with speed); minimum total drag occurs at L/D max, which is the best glide/best range speed.

• Induced drag dominates at low speed; parasite drag dominates at high speed
• L/D max = point where the two curves intersect
• Above L/D max is the region of normal command; below is region of reversed command

Memory trick: Where the curves cross, glide the boss (best glide)

For VFR flight, pilots must carry enough fuel to fly to the first point of intended landing plus a reserve: 30 minutes during the day, 45 minutes at night, at normal cruise consumption.

• Day VFR reserve = 30 minutes
• Night VFR reserve = 45 minutes
• Reserve calculated at normal cruising fuel consumption

Memory trick: 'Day = 30, Night = 45 — always add the reserve.'

Because takeoff distance depends on the square of liftoff speed, small increases in gross weight cause disproportionately larger increases in required takeoff distance.

• A 10% weight increase ≈ 20% more takeoff distance
• Relationship is roughly squared, not linear
• Heavier weight also reduces climb performance

Memory trick: Ten becomes Twenty — weight up 10%, distance up 20%

A gliding maneuver consisting of three or more 360° turns to develop division of attention and wind-drift correction, which must be completed no lower than 1,000 feet AGL.

• Performed with power at idle in a continuous gliding descent
• Bank angle should not exceed 60°
• Maintains a constant radius around a ground reference point

Memory trick: 'Spiral stops at a grand' — 1,000 feet is the floor.

A property of rotating bodies where an applied force results in a deflection felt 90° later in the direction of rotation; on takeoff, raising the tail causes a left-yawing tendency in airplanes with clockwise-rotating propellers.

• One of the four left-turning tendencies
• Force applied 90° ahead in direction of rotation is where the effect appears
• Most noticeable in tailwheel airplanes when raising/lowering the tail

Memory trick: Push the top, feel it 90° later at the side — precession slides the force around

A CWA is an unscheduled inflight weather advisory issued by a Center Weather Service Unit (CWSU) for conditions meeting or approaching AIRMET/SIGMET criteria, valid for up to 2 hours, primarily to support ATC and pilot awareness.

• Issued by CWSU meteorologists at ARTCCs
• Valid for a maximum of 2 hours
• Supplements, does not replace, AIRMETs and SIGMETs

Memory trick: CWA: Center's Warning for the Air, right now

A frontal boundary formed when a fast-moving cold front catches up to and overtakes a slower warm front, lifting the warm air mass completely off the surface.

• Two types: cold-type and warm-type occlusion
• Weather combines characteristics of both cold and warm fronts
• Often associated with the mature/dissipating stage of a mid-latitude cyclone

Memory trick: Occlusion = a frontal sandwich, warm air squeezed out.

A landing gear hydraulic power pack uses a pressure switch to activate the electric pump whenever system pressure drops below a set value, often due to a minor internal leak.

• Power pack includes reservoir, pump, selector valve, actuators, and relief valve
• Pressure switch cycles pump automatically to maintain pressure
• Frequent cycling with gear up may indicate an internal leak needing maintenance

Memory trick: Pump cycles = system 'topping off' pressure lost to a slow leak.

A slip occurs when bank is too steep for the turn rate (ball toward inside/low wing); a skid occurs when bank is too shallow for the turn rate (ball toward outside).

• Slip: too much bank, ball toward low wing
• Skid: too much rudder/rate, ball toward high wing
• Coordinated flight keeps the ball centered

Memory trick: 'Slip in, Skid out' — ball toward low wing = slip, ball toward outside = skid.

The distance from the CG to the horizontal stabilizer's aerodynamic center; a longer moment arm increases the restoring moment and enhances longitudinal static stability.

• Moment = force × arm length
• Longer tail arm increases stabilizing moment
• CG position and tail arm both affect longitudinal stability

Memory trick: A longer wrench (tail arm) turns the same force into a bigger corrective moment.

The fundamental principle that reducing angle of attack must occur first in any stall recovery, regardless of power setting or configuration.

• Reduce AOA first to break the stall
• Then apply power to regain airspeed/altitude
• Level wings with coordinated aileron and rudder
• Avoid abrupt control inputs to prevent secondary stall

Memory trick: 'Nose first, power second' breaks every stall.

A great circle is the shortest path between two points on a sphere; a rhumb line maintains a constant heading but is longer.

• Lambert conformal conic charts approximate great circles as straight lines
• Rhumb lines appear curved on Lambert charts but straight on Mercator charts
• Great circle routes require heading changes along the route

Memory trick: 'Great circle = the shortcut, but the heading keeps shifting'

An ammeter that indicates the rate of charge or discharge of the battery, with zero indicating the battery is neither charging nor discharging.

• Different from a loadmeter, which always reads alternator output
• Positive deflection = battery charging
• Negative deflection = battery discharging, often alternator failure

Memory trick: 'Zero means the battery is happy—no gain, no loss'

Before each solo cross-country flight, a student pilot must receive training in the required areas and a specific logbook endorsement confirming the instructor reviewed planning and deems the flight safe to conduct.

• Endorsement must be flight-specific, not blanket
• Instructor reviews route, weather, performance planning
• Separate endorsement required for repeated/different flights
• Distinct from initial pre-solo endorsement under 61.87

Memory trick: Every new route needs a fresh instructor's nod.

A maneuver where the pilot closes the throttle abeam the intended landing point and glides to a touchdown within a specified distance, demonstrating engine-out landing proficiency.

• Throttle closed abeam the specified point
• ACS tolerance: touchdown within 200 feet beyond or on the point
• Tests glide path management without power

Memory trick: '200 feet, no sweat' gets you the accuracy landing.

The airflow relative to an airfoil, created by the airplane's movement through the air, always parallel to and opposite the flight path.

• Opposite direction of flight path
• Combines with chord line to form angle of attack
• Independent of surface/reported wind

Memory trick: Relative wind always runs 'backwards' along the flight path.

The altitude AGL at which, for a given groundspeed, the projected line of sight to a pylon remains fixed, allowing the pylon to appear to pivot on the wingtip during eights-on-pylons.

• Formula: PA (ft AGL) = GS(kt)^2 / 11.3
• Pivotal altitude changes with groundspeed, not bank angle
• Wind requires constant altitude adjustment during the maneuver as groundspeed changes

Memory trick: 'GS Squared over 11.3' pins the pylon under the wingtip.

The speed range below L/D max (minimum drag speed) where additional power is required to fly slower and maintain altitude, the opposite of the normal power-speed relationship.

• Also called the 'back side of the power curve'
• Occurs during slow flight, approach, and landing configurations
• Requires pitch for airspeed and power for altitude control technique

Memory trick: Behind the curve, more power is needed just to go slower

The magnetic bearing to an NDB station equals the relative bearing shown on the ADF indicator plus the aircraft's magnetic heading (subtract 360° if the sum exceeds 360°).

• RB is measured clockwise from the nose of the aircraft
• MH + RB = MB (station)
• Used for NDB orientation and homing/tracking

Memory trick: 'MH plus RB equals MB — Add to find the Bearing.'

Wing loading is gross weight divided by wing area (lb/sq ft); higher wing loading increases stall speed but generally gives a smoother ride in turbulence.

• Wing loading = Weight ÷ Wing Area
• Higher wing loading → higher stall speed
• Higher wing loading → smoother ride in gusts
• Affects maneuverability and turn performance

Memory trick: 'Heavy wing, higher stall sting' — more weight per square foot needs more speed.

As the velocity of a fluid increases, its static pressure decreases; applied to airfoils, faster airflow over the curved upper surface produces lower pressure than the lower surface.

• One of two accepted theories of lift (with Newton's third law)
• Faster airflow = lower static pressure
• Works together with downwash (Newton's laws) to fully explain lift

Memory trick: Bernoulli = 'faster flow, lower pressure blow'

Pressure altitude is the altitude indicated when the altimeter is set to 29.92 inHg; it is found by correcting field elevation for the difference between the current setting and standard pressure.

• PA = field elevation + (29.92 − altimeter setting) × 1,000
• High altimeter setting subtracts from elevation
• Low altimeter setting adds to elevation

Memory trick: High is Low — high altimeter setting lowers pressure altitude

If the static port is blocked, the airspeed indicator acts like an altimeter, reading high in a climb and low in a descent relative to the trapped reference pressure.

• Trapped static pressure stays constant
• Climb causes ASI to over-read
• Descent causes ASI to under-read
• Altimeter and VSI also freeze

Memory trick: Blocked static, ASI goes ballistic on climb-out

A backup mechanism that bypasses the normal hydraulic/electric gear system, using mechanical release and gravity, airloads, or springs (sometimes aided by a hand pump) to extend and lock the landing gear.

• Bypasses failed normal hydraulic/electric system
• Relies on gravity, air loads, or springs for extension
• May require manual hand pump or crank to complete the process

Memory trick: When hydraulics fail, gravity becomes your co-pilot

A system that rotates propeller blades to an edge-on (feathered) position after engine failure to minimize drag and prevent windmilling damage.

• Uses high-pressure oil from a feathering pump or accumulator
• Counterweights or springs assist movement to feather
• Common on turboprop and some twin piston aircraft

Memory trick: 'Feather like a knife edge slicing into the wind—drag disappears'

The FAA defines cross-country time differently depending on its purpose; for private pilot, commercial pilot, and instrument rating aeronautical experience, a landing must be more than 50 NM straight-line from the departure point.

• General logging definition: any landing away from departure using navigation
• Private/Commercial/Instrument experience: landing >50 NM straight-line required
• ATP (fixed-wing) experience: landing >50 NM straight-line required
• ATP with rotorcraft rating: landing >25 NM straight-line required

Memory trick: "Fifty for the Fixed-Wing Five" — private, commercial, instrument, and ATP fixed-wing all need >50 NM.

Thunderstorms develop through three stages — cumulus, mature, and dissipating — each defined by the dominant vertical air motion.

• Cumulus stage: updrafts only, no precipitation
• Mature stage: updrafts and downdrafts coexist, precipitation begins, most severe hazards
• Dissipating stage: downdrafts dominate, storm weakens
• Gust front often precedes mature stage arrival at surface

Memory trick: Cumulus builds up, Mature blows up, Dissipating calms down.

The approximate freezing level can be estimated by dividing the surface temperature (°C) by the standard lapse rate of 2°C per 1,000 feet.

• Standard atmosphere lapse rate: 2°C per 1,000 ft (approx., using 3.5F/1000ft or 2C/1000ft rule of thumb)
• Freezing level (ft) = surface temp(°C) ÷ 2 × 1,000
• Icing potential generally increases above the freezing level in visible moisture
• PIREPs help verify forecast icing/freezing levels in actual conditions

Memory trick: Divide surface temp by two, multiply by a thousand — that's where ice starts to grow.

On many airplanes, the forward CG limit moves aft (becomes more restrictive) as gross weight decreases, because a lighter airplane loaded too far forward may exceed elevator authority for landing flare or stall recovery.

• CG limits are read from a graph or table specific to the airplane's actual weight, not just max gross weight.
• Interpolation between charted weight points is required when the exact weight isn't listed.
• A CG forward of the interpolated forward limit is unsafe even if it would be acceptable at max gross weight.

Memory trick: Light and forward is a dangerous pair — the limit creeps aft to keep control fair.

Required by 61.31(f) before acting as PIC of an airplane with an engine of more than 200 horsepower.

• Threshold is exactly more than 200 hp
• Endorsement requires logged ground and flight training
• Independent of the complex airplane endorsement

Memory trick: 'Two hundred and one, the fun has begun' — high-performance starts above 200 hp.

Requires enough fuel to reach the first point of intended landing, plus a reserve of 30 minutes (day) or 45 minutes (night) at normal cruising speed.

• Day VFR reserve: 30 minutes at normal cruise
• Night VFR reserve: 45 minutes at normal cruise
• Applies to airplanes only, not helicopters (91.151 vs 91.167 for IFR)

Memory trick: '3 for day, 4.5 for night' (30 min day, 45 min night).

In a coordinated turn, load factor increases with bank angle, and stall speed increases proportionally to the square root of the load factor.

• 60° bank = 2 G load factor
• Vs(turn) = Vs(level) × √n
• Steeper banks dramatically raise stall speed

Memory trick: Square Root Shoots stall speed up in steep banks

Prohibits fraudulent or intentionally false entries in any logbook, record, or report required to be kept under Part 61, with certificate suspension/revocation as the consequence.

• Applies to logbooks, records, and reports required by Part 61
• Basis for suspension or revocation of any certificate/rating held
• Reproduction of certificates for fraudulent purposes is also covered

Memory trick: Fake it, and you lose it — falsified logs = lost certificates.

TAFs use FM, BECMG, TEMPO, and PROB to describe how and when forecast conditions change during the valid period.

• FM = rapid change, all conditions replaced from that time
• BECMG = gradual change over a time range
• TEMPO = temporary fluctuations lasting <1 hour at a time
• PROB30/PROB40 = probability of occurrence, not used with TEMPO for thunderstorms/precip in the same way

Memory trick: TEMPO is a temporary guest — in and out within the hour.

A microburst is a small, intense downdraft that spreads out at the surface, producing headwind-to-tailwind shifts and severe altitude/airspeed loss for aircraft on approach or departure.

• Downdrafts can exceed 6,000 feet per minute
• Horizontal extent typically 1–2.5 nautical miles in diameter
• Duration usually 5–15 minutes
• Sequence: increasing headwind, then severe downdraft, then increasing tailwind

Memory trick: Headwind up, downdraft slams, tailwind grabs — the microburst trap.

A ground reference maneuver requiring the pilot to vary bank angle to maintain a constant ground track distance from a rectangular field, with steepest bank where groundspeed is greatest.

• Steepest bank occurs turning off the downwind leg (highest groundspeed)
• Shallowest bank occurs turning off the upwind leg (lowest groundspeed)
• Bank angle continuously varies through each turn to compensate for wind drift

Memory trick: 'Downwind is fastest, so bank the steepest' after that leg.

A pilot must receive training and a logbook endorsement before acting as PIC of an airplane with retractable gear, flaps, and a controllable-pitch propeller (or is equipped with an engine control system).

• Applies to retractable gear, flaps, controllable-pitch prop
• One-time training and endorsement, not an added rating
• Similar endorsements exist for high-performance and tailwheel airplanes

Memory trick: 'Complex needs a stamp, not a rating.'

A forecast chart depicting the anticipated positions of high and low pressure systems, fronts, and associated precipitation at specified valid times in the future, used to anticipate changing weather along a route.

• Forecast product, unlike the analysis chart which shows current conditions
• Valid times commonly 12, 24, 36, and 48 hours ahead
• Shows forecast fronts, pressure centers, and precipitation areas

Memory trick: Prog chart = a crystal ball for tomorrow's fronts

The corkscrew-shaped airflow behind a rotating propeller that wraps around the fuselage and strikes the left side of the vertical stabilizer, producing a left-yawing tendency, most pronounced at high power/low airspeed.

• One of four left-turning tendencies
• Most noticeable at high power and low airspeed (e.g., climb)
• Requires right rudder correction in most single-engine airplanes

Memory trick: The slipstream corkscrews and slaps the tail's left cheek

Occurs when dihedral effect is strong relative to directional stability, causing a bank disturbance to develop into an ever-steepening diving spiral.

• Caused by weak directional stability vs strong dihedral effect
• Bank and airspeed increase progressively without correction
• Opposite imbalance (strong directional, weak dihedral) causes Dutch roll

Memory trick: Weak weathervane + strong dihedral = spiral dive

Ignition of the fuel-air mixture before the scheduled spark timing, usually caused by a hot spot in the combustion chamber such as a glowing carbon deposit or overheated exhaust valve.

• Can occur at any power setting, unlike detonation
• Causes power loss, engine roughness, and elevated CHT
• Can lead to detonation due to added heat and pressure

Memory trick: PREignition = premature spark from a hot spot, not from lean mixture.

Wind that flows parallel to isobars above the friction layer, resulting from a balance between the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis force.

• Coriolis force deflects wind to the right in the Northern Hemisphere
• Balance occurs above roughly 2,000-3,000 feet AGL where friction is minimal
• Wind speed is proportional to the pressure gradient (isobar spacing)

Memory trick: Coriolis is the invisible hand curving wind to flow along the isobar lines

A pilot without a type rating who wants to act as SIC of an aircraft requiring one must complete ground/flight training on that aircraft and pass a competency check within the preceding 12 months.

• Applies when SIC's certificate doesn't already include a type rating for the aircraft
• Training covers systems, performance, and emergency procedures
• Competency check must be within preceding 12 calendar months, logged in the pilot's logbook

Memory trick: No type rating? Train, check, and log it — every 12 months.

Wing loading (weight ÷ wing area) directly affects stall speed; stall speed varies with the square root of the ratio of wing loadings when weight or wing area changes.

• Formula: Vs2 = Vs1 × √(WL2/WL1)
• Higher wing loading = higher stall speed
• Smaller wing area with same weight increases wing loading and stall speed

Memory trick: Smaller wings, same weight, means a sneakier (higher) stall speed

The angular difference between true course and true heading needed to counteract wind drift, calculated using the wind triangle or an E6B flight computer.

• WCA = arcsin(wind speed × sin(relative wind angle) / TAS)
• Correct into the wind: turn heading toward the direction the wind is coming from
• True heading = True course ± WCA depending on which side the wind is from

Memory trick: Turn your nose into the wind to stay on the line

High humidity slightly reduces air density beyond that predicted by temperature and pressure alone because water vapor molecules are lighter than the oxygen/nitrogen molecules they replace, further reducing engine power and lift.

• Water vapor is lighter than dry air's main components
• Humid air is less dense than dry air at same temp/pressure
• Effect is smaller than temperature/pressure but still real
• POH performance charts often assume dry air, understating hot/humid degradation

Memory trick: 'Wet air is light air' — humidity thins the air further.

A private pilot may share the operating expenses of a flight with passengers if the pilot pays at least a pro rata share, limited to fuel, oil, airport expenditures, or rental fees.

• Pilot must pay own pro rata share too
• Limited to fuel, oil, airport fees, rental fees
• Other exceptions: charitable flights, search and rescue, aircraft sales demos

Memory trick: 'Split it evenly, including yourself.'

An upper-air chart depicting the height, temperature, wind, and humidity at a specified constant pressure surface (e.g., 700mb, 500mb).

• Height contours function like isobars, showing pressure surface topography
• Closely spaced contours indicate strong winds; widely spaced indicate light winds
• Commonly analyzed levels include 850, 700, 500, 300, and 200 mb

Memory trick: Tight contour lines = tight winds, like squeezing isobars together

SIGMETs (WS) warn of severe weather hazardous to all aircraft, including severe icing, severe/extreme turbulence, volcanic ash, and dust/sandstorms.

• Severe or greater turbulence not associated with thunderstorms
• Severe icing not associated with thunderstorms
• Widespread dust/sandstorm lowering visibility below 3SM
• Volcanic ash contamination

Memory trick: SIGMET = Severe Stuff (turbulence, icing, ash, dust) for everyone

Uncontrolled Class G airspace generally exists from the surface up to 1,200 ft AGL nationwide, though it can extend higher in remote areas or lower near airports with instrument procedures.

• Standard floor of Class E is 1,200 AGL.
• Near some airports, Class E floor (and thus G ceiling) is 700 AGL.
• In parts of the western US, Class G can extend up to 14,500 MSL.

Memory trick: 'Twelve hundred is the standard' — G stops where E starts.

An aileron design where the up-going aileron's leading edge extends below the wing's lower surface into the airflow, creating extra drag to help offset adverse yaw.

• Differs from differential ailerons, which use unequal deflection angles
• Reduces, but does not fully eliminate, the need for rudder input
• Common on many light training and general aviation aircraft

Memory trick: Frise = 'Friction-adding' aileron that pokes into the wind to fight adverse yaw

A stall that occurs at a higher airspeed than the normal 1G stall speed due to an increased load factor, typically demonstrated in a steep turn with increasing back-pressure.

• Stall speed increases with the square root of load factor
• Demonstrated to show danger of abrupt pull-ups or steep turns at low altitude
• Requires prompt recovery to avoid excessive altitude loss or secondary stall

Memory trick: 'More Gs, more speed needed to stall' is the accelerated stall rule.

Under 61.183(i), an initial CFI-airplane applicant must have logged training in stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin recovery, or hold an equivalent logbook endorsement.

• Applies to initial airplane CFI applicants
• Covers stall awareness, spin entry, spins, recovery
• Endorsement may substitute for logged flight training

Memory trick: CFIs must 'spin before they teach' spin awareness.

A reduction in induced drag and downwash experienced when the wing operates within approximately one wingspan of the surface, increasing lift efficiency.

• Occurs within about one wingspan altitude
• Reduces induced drag and downwash
• Can cause floating during landing or premature liftoff during takeoff
• Most pronounced with low-wing, wide-span aircraft

Memory trick: 'Cushion of air' near the ground makes wings extra efficient

An applicant for an initial flight instructor certificate must meet several requirements, including logging at least 15 hours as PIC in the category and class of aircraft appropriate to the rating sought.

• At least 15 hours PIC in appropriate category/class required
• Applicant must already hold a commercial or ATP certificate with that rating
• Must pass a fundamentals of instructing and specific CFI knowledge/practical tests

Memory trick: Fifteen hours PIC — the CFI's minimum 'seat time' before teaching others.

An FAA publication providing detailed data on airports, including services, communications, runway data, and special procedures.

• Formerly called the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD)
• Published every 56 days
• Includes FBOs, fuel types, remarks, and noise abatement info

Memory trick: 'Supplement = the airport's user manual'

A chart used to determine headwind and crosswind components based on wind speed and the angular difference between wind direction and runway heading.

• Headwind = wind speed × cos(angle)
• Crosswind = wind speed × sin(angle)
• At 90° difference, wind is pure crosswind

Memory trick: Cosine Close to runway, Sine Sideways across it

Allows dispatch with inoperative instruments/equipment if specific conditions are met when no FAA-approved MEL exists for the aircraft.

• Item must not be required by the Kinds of Equipment List/Type Cert
• Item must not be required by 91.205 for that flight
• Item must not be required by an AD
• Item is removed/deactivated and placarded 'Inoperative'

Memory trick: No MEL? Check TC, 205, AD, then placard it.

An electrically heated pitot tube element that prevents ice from blocking the pitot opening and drain hole in icing conditions.

• Controlled by a cockpit switch, powered by the electrical system
• Protects only the pitot tube, not static ports (unless heated static ports installed)
• Should be checked for warmth during preflight and used anytime in visible moisture near freezing

Memory trick: Hot pitot, no blocked shot (of air pressure)

Maximum weight allowed before usable fuel is added, limiting structural loads (especially wing bending) independent of fuel weight.

• ZFW = empty weight + all payload (no usable fuel)
• Protects against excessive wing root bending moment
• Fuel in wings acts as bending relief, reducing structural load
• Common on larger/turbine aircraft; some small GA POHs specify it too

Memory trick: 'No fuel, no relief' — wings need fuel weight to offset bending stress.