FAA Flight Instructor Airplane (FIA) flashcards

Ground effect reduces induced drag near the surface, which can let an airplane become airborne below climb speed and then be unable to climb, or settle back, once it leaves the effect.

• Ground effect occurs within about one wingspan of the surface
• Induced drag is significantly reduced in ground effect
• Premature liftoff in ground effect can cause a hazardous inability to climb

Memory trick: Ground effect gives a false sense of flying free

An electrically driven rate gyro canted about 30 degrees to the horizontal, allowing it to sense roll rate in addition to yaw rate.

• Canted gyro axis (~30°) senses roll and yaw
• Electrically powered, not vacuum
• Displays rate of roll and turn, not bank angle

Memory trick: Canted gyro Catches both Roll and yaw

Except in Alaska and areas below 1,500 ft AGL, Class E airspace extends from 14,500 feet MSL up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL nationwide.

• Applies even without depicted magenta/blue boundaries
• Excludes airspace below 1,500 ft AGL
• Terminates at 18,000 ft MSL where Class A begins

Memory trick: '14,500 to 17,999 — Everywhere Else is E.'

A pilot must have made 3 takeoffs and landings in the preceding 90 days in the same category, class, and type (if required) to carry passengers during the day.

• 90-day window for day currency
• Landings may be full-stop or touch-and-go (day only)
• Separate, stricter rule (full-stop, at night) applies for night passenger currency

Memory trick: 90 days by day, 90 days by night, but night needs full-stop.

A placard near the magnetic compass listing the compass heading to steer for selected magnetic headings, correcting for deviation caused by onboard magnetic interference.

• Deviation differs from magnetic variation
• Card values vary by aircraft and electrical load
• Steer the listed compass heading to achieve desired magnetic heading

Memory trick: 'Deviation is Deceptive—check the card, not your gut.'

A headwind reduces groundspeed at liftoff, shortening the ground roll; POH charts typically express this as a percentage reduction per knot increment of headwind.

• Headwind shortens takeoff and landing distance
• Correction is often stated per specific knot increment (e.g., 9 kt = 10%)
• Always use the headwind COMPONENT, not full wind speed
• Tailwind has the opposite, and larger, effect

Memory trick: 'Headwind helps, tailwind terrorizes' distance.

A commercial maneuver that develops division of attention and coordination by having the pilot maintain a visual sight line on ground pylons using pivotal altitude while compensating for wind drift.

• Uses pivotal altitude, not a fixed bank angle
• Requires holding a visual line-of-sight on the pylon
• Pilot must adjust altitude as groundspeed/wind changes
• Develops division of attention between flight path and ground reference

Memory trick: 'Eyes on the pylon, mind on the plan' — the maneuver trains divided attention.

A standardized spin recovery sequence: Power idle, Ailerons neutral, Rudder full opposite rotation, Elevator forward to break the stall.

• Power to idle prevents aggravating the spin
• Ailerons neutral reduces adverse aileron drag
• Full opposite rudder stops rotation
• Elevator forward breaks the stall, followed by dive recovery

Memory trick: 'Power first, always' starts every spin recovery.

FAR 91.211 sets crew and passenger oxygen requirements based on cabin pressure altitude and duration of exposure.

• 12,500-14,000 ft: crew oxygen after 30 min
• Above 14,000 ft: crew oxygen at all times
• Above 15,000 ft: oxygen must be available to each occupant

Memory trick: '12-30, 14-always, 15-everyone' for oxygen tiers.

Due to pendulous mounting, the magnetic compass shows a false turn indication during acceleration or deceleration, maximum on north/south headings and zero on east/west headings.

• ANDS: Accelerate North, Decelerate South
• Error is zero on east and west headings
• Caused by compass card's pendulous suspension and dip

Memory trick: ANDS: Accelerate North, Decelerate South; zero on East/West

Aircraft may not be operated in formation except by prior arrangement between the pilots in command, and never so close as to create a collision hazard; formation flight carrying passengers for hire is prohibited.

• Prior arrangement between PICs required
• No operating close enough to create collision hazard
• Prohibited when carrying passengers for hire

Memory trick: Fly in formation? Shake hands first — plan it, don't wing it.

Procedure for a VFR pilot experiencing radio failure approaching a towered airport in Class D airspace.

• Squawk 7600
• Remain outside airspace, observe traffic flow
• Enter pattern and look for light gun signals

Memory trick: '76 for silence, watch the lights for guidance'

Fog that forms when warm, moist air moves horizontally over a colder surface, cooling to its dew point.

• Common along coastlines and in winter over snow-covered ground
• Can form with wind present, unlike radiation fog
• Often more extensive and persistent than radiation fog

Memory trick: Advection = 'A' for Air moving horizontally Across surfaces

The VSI compares current static pressure to a delayed pressure from a calibrated leak inside its case, causing inherent lag of several seconds and a brief reversal indication during abrupt pitch changes.

• Uses a diaphragm and calibrated leak (capillary restriction)
• Typical lag is 6-9 seconds behind actual vertical speed
• Abrupt maneuvers can cause brief reversed indications ('reversal error')

Memory trick: VSI's calibrated leak makes it a few seconds behind the truth

A method to estimate a value between two known table entries by proportionally distributing the difference.

• Find the fraction of distance between the two known points
• Multiply that fraction by the difference in outcome values
• Add the result to the lower known value

Memory trick: Halfway in, halfway out on the chart

A steep turn is a 360° turn at 50° bank (Commercial) used to teach control at high load factors; the ACS specifies precise tolerances for altitude, airspeed, and heading.

• Bank angle: 50° (Commercial), 45° (Private)
• Altitude tolerance: ±100 feet
• Airspeed tolerance: ±10 knots; roll-out heading ±10°

Memory trick: '100-10-10' — 100 feet, 10 knots, 10 degrees keeps the steep turn tight.

The portion of wind acting along the aircraft's course, calculated as wind speed × cosine of the angle between wind direction and course.

• Angle measured between wind FROM direction and course
• Headwind reduces groundspeed, tailwind increases it
• Crosswind component uses sine of the same angle

Memory trick: 'Cosine for the push, Sine for the shove.'

A clearance allowing flight below basic VFR weather minimums within the surface area of controlled airspace, requiring 1 SM visibility, remaining clear of clouds, and at night an instrument rating with an IFR-equipped aircraft.

• Must be requested by pilot or offered by ATC.
• Not available at certain airports listed in 91.157(c).
• Daytime SVFR does not require instrument rating.

Memory trick: 'SVFR at night needs an instrument ticket to fly right.'

As AOA increases, the boundary layer loses energy and separates from the wing's upper surface, collapsing the pressure differential and causing the stall.

• Boundary layer is the thin layer of air adjacent to the wing surface
• Separation destroys lift-producing pressure differential
• Vortex generators and stall strips manage this separation

Memory trick: When the airflow 'lets go' of the wing, the wing lets go of you

Exhaust gas temperature is used to set mixture: leaning past peak EGT yields best economy, while enriching slightly rich of peak EGT yields best power.

• Best economy: lean of peak EGT
• Best power: slightly rich of peak EGT (about 50-100°F)
• Always monitor CHT to avoid overheating while leaning

Memory trick: Rich of peak = power; lean of peak = penny-pinching.

Before any flight, the pilot in command must become familiar with all available information concerning that flight, with additional specific items required for flights not in the vicinity of an airport.

• Weather reports and forecasts required
• Fuel requirements must be evaluated
• Alternatives if flight cannot be completed as planned
• Known ATC traffic delays must be considered

Memory trick: Weather, fuel, alternates, delays — check them all before flight-day plays.

Moment is the product of weight and arm (distance from datum), representing the turning effect of a weight about the reference datum.

• Moment = Weight × Arm
• Total moment ÷ total weight = CG location
• Every loading station (seats, baggage, fuel) has its own arm and moment

Memory trick: Weight times Arm gives you the Moment's charm.

Selecting each magneto individually during runup verifies both ignition systems function; a normal drop in RPM (not stoppage) confirms proper operation.

• BOTH position uses both magnetos for redundancy and smoother combustion
• Selecting L or R alone should cause a small RPM drop but engine keeps running
• Complete engine stoppage on one position indicates a magneto or ignition circuit failure

Memory trick: Drop is fine, dead is denied

Wingtip vortices form from air spilling around the wingtip from the high-pressure lower surface to the low-pressure upper surface; the resulting induced drag is greatest at low airspeed/high AOA.

• Induced drag increases as airspeed decreases
• Strongest vortices occur when heavy, slow, and clean (e.g., short final)
• Winglets reduce induced drag by disrupting vortex formation

Memory trick: Slow and heavy = swirly and heavy drag

The flight director calculates and displays pitch/roll steering commands on the attitude indicator for manual flying, while the autopilot uses servos to move the actual flight controls, often following the same computed commands.

• Flight director = visual guidance (command bars)
• Autopilot = physical control via servos
• Autopilot can be coupled to follow flight director commands
• Both can pull data from various navigation sources

Memory trick: Flight director shows the way; autopilot drives the car.

An anti-ice system that continuously exudes a glycol-based freezing-point-depressant fluid through porous titanium panels on the leading edges to prevent ice from bonding to the airframe.

• Classified as anti-ice because it prevents ice formation/adhesion rather than removing it after buildup
• Fluid is metered from a reservoir by a pump through proportioning units to leading-edge panels, propeller slinger rings, and windshield
• Differs from pneumatic boots (mechanical de-ice) and electrothermal panels (thermal de-ice), which remove ice after it forms

Memory trick: TKS 'weeps' fluid before ice can even think about sticking

The set of documents that must be aboard a civil aircraft during flight per 14 CFR 91.203 and 91.9.

• A = Airworthiness Certificate
• R = Registration Certificate
• R = Radio Station License (international flights only)
• O = Operating Limitations

Memory trick: ARROW points to what must be aboard the plane.

A MOA is special use airspace established to separate certain military training activities from IFR traffic; VFR flight is permitted but caution is advised.

• VFR flight permitted without clearance
• Pilots should contact Flight Service for activity status
• IFR traffic is separated from MOA activity by ATC

Memory trick: 'MOA = May Overfly, but be Alert'

A turbocharging system in which the wastegate position is fixed or manually set rather than automatically controlled, requiring the pilot to closely monitor and manage manifold pressure to prevent overboost.

• No automatic controller adjusts exhaust bypass
• Pilot must manage throttle carefully during power changes
• Risk of overboost if throttle advanced too quickly at low altitude

Memory trick: Fixed wastegate = pilot is the 'human governor'

A coupled yaw-roll oscillation caused by strong directional stability relative to dihedral effect, common in swept-wing aircraft; often corrected with a yaw damper.

• Combination of yawing and rolling motion
• Caused by strong directional stability vs weak dihedral effect
• Common in swept-wing jets; countered by yaw dampers

Memory trick: Dutch roll: the plane 'wags its tail' side to side like a fish

The pressure gradient force is the rate of pressure change over distance; it is depicted on charts by isobar spacing, with closer isobars indicating a steeper gradient and stronger winds.

• Closely spaced isobars = steep gradient = strong winds
• Widely spaced isobars = weak gradient = light winds
• Wind flows from high to low pressure, modified by Coriolis and friction

Memory trick: Isobars packed tight like fence pickets = wind whistling hard through the gaps

Small, normal drift in a vacuum-driven heading indicator caused by internal friction, requiring periodic realignment with the magnetic compass.

• Typically realigned every 15 minutes in level, unaccelerated flight
• Excessive or erratic drift may indicate a failing gyro or vacuum system
• Different from acceleration/turning errors of the magnetic compass itself

Memory trick: 'Every 15 minutes, sync the spinning compass to true north'

Sectional chart airport symbols are colored blue for towered airports and magenta for non-towered airports.

• Blue = control tower in operation
• Magenta = no operating control tower
• Symbol shape indicates hard-surface vs. other runway types

Memory trick: 'Blue = Booth (tower); Magenta = no Man in the tower.'

14 CFR 91.171 specifies allowable error tolerances for various VOR accuracy checks required for IFR flight.

• VOT check: ±4°
• Ground checkpoint: ±4°
• Airborne checkpoint: ±6°
• Dual VOR receiver check: maximum 4° difference between receivers

Memory trick: 'VOT and Ground are 4, Air is 6, Dual is 4 too'

A narrow band of strong westerly winds located near the tropopause, formed by the temperature contrast between polar and tropical air masses.

• Typically found between 30,000-40,000 feet MSL
• Wind speeds can exceed 200 knots in winter
• Associated with clear air turbulence (CAT) near its core

Memory trick: Jet stream: a river of wind riding the temperature cliff.

Required when a pilot fails to maintain instrument currency under 61.57(c) and the 6-month grace period has also lapsed; must be given by an examiner, authorized instructor, or other FAA-approved person.

• Base currency: 6 approaches, holding, tracking in 6 calendar months
• Grace period: additional 6 months to requalify without IPC
• IPC required if grace period also lapses
• IPC covers representative sample of Instrument Rating ACS areas

Memory trick: Six months to fly it, six more to try it, then IPC to fly it right.

An accuracy landing maneuver in which the pilot glides from a downwind abeam position to touchdown within a specified distance of a point without power.

• Private pilot ACS tolerance: within 200 feet beyond the specified point
• Commercial pilot ACS tolerance: within 100 feet
• Power is reduced to idle abeam the intended touchdown point

Memory trick: Private = 2 (200 ft), Commercial = 1 (100 ft) — tighter certificate, tighter tolerance.

A design feature twisting the wingtip to a lower angle of incidence than the root, causing the root to stall first and preserving aileron control near stall.

• Root stalls before tip due to lower AOA at tips
• Preserves aileron effectiveness during stall onset
• Produces gentler, more controllable stall characteristics

Memory trick: Washout: tips 'wash out' the lift last, keeping ailerons alive

Illuminates when bus voltage drops below a preset value, typically indicating alternator failure and battery-only operation.

• Paired with ammeter discharge reading in most light aircraft
• Common causes: failed alternator field circuit, tripped breaker, broken belt
• Pilot response: reduce electrical load, consider precautionary landing

Memory trick: Light on, ammeter down, alternator's out of town

If cabin altitude rises despite a properly functioning outflow valve, a structural or seal leak is allowing pressurized air to escape faster than bleed air supply can compensate.

• Outflow valve regulates cabin pressure by controlling air exhaust rate
• Leaks (door seals, windows, fuselage cracks) bypass the outflow valve's control
• Rate controller only affects cabin climb/descent rate, not achievable maximum pressure

Memory trick: Valve's fine, but air's leaking out the side

The tendency of an airplane to roll back toward wings-level after a sideslip develops, caused by an increased angle of attack (and lift) on the lower wing due to wing dihedral.

• Triggered by sideslip following a bank
• Low wing gets higher effective AOA and more lift
• Provides positive lateral (roll) stability

Memory trick: A 'V' shaped wing scoops more air with its low side, pushing it back up.

When aircraft converge at about the same altitude (other than head-on), the aircraft to the other's right has the right of way.

• Converging rule applies except head-on approaches
• Aircraft to the right has right of way
• Category hierarchy also applies: balloon > glider > airship > airplane/rotorcraft

Memory trick: 'Right is right' — yield to traffic on your right.

Wing sweep contributes to positive dihedral effect because, in a sideslip, the leading wing has reduced effective sweep and greater lift than the trailing wing, producing a rolling moment away from the slip.

• Adds to dihedral effect independently of geometric dihedral
• Leading wing = less effective sweep = more lift
• Excessive total dihedral effect can contribute to Dutch roll tendency

Memory trick: Sweep back your arms in a sideslip — the forward arm feels the wind straighter and lifts more

A heated, spring-loaded vane on the wing leading edge that senses changing airflow direction (angle of attack) and triggers a warning before the critical angle of attack is reached.

• Senses angle of attack via airflow direction, not airspeed directly
• Heated element prevents ice from jamming the vane
• Activates several knots above actual stall speed as a margin

Memory trick: Vane feels the flow shift before the wing gives up

A pilot need not accomplish a flight review if, within the preceding 24 calendar months, they have satisfactorily completed a practical test/proficiency check or an FAA WINGS phase.

• Standard flight review: 1 hour ground + 1 hour flight every 24 calendar months
• A checkride for any certificate, rating, or operating privilege counts as a substitute
• Completing a WINGS phase also satisfies the requirement
• The 24-month clock restarts from the date of the qualifying event

Memory trick: "Checkride Counts" — any passed test resets your 24-month clock.

After failing a practical test, an applicant needs additional training and a new endorsement from the instructor who provided that training before retesting.

• Instructor giving remedial training must sign endorsement
• Endorsement certifies training given and readiness for retest
• Applies regardless of who originally recommended the test
• Notice of Disapproval documents the failed items

Memory trick: Whoever fixes the flaw signs the do-over.

An aircraft electrical architecture dividing loads into separate buses so that a failure on one bus does not necessarily disable power to the other, improving redundancy.

• Common on twin-engine aircraft with independent alternators/generators per engine
• Often separates essential from non-essential loads for fault isolation
• Battery remains part of the system as an emergency backup source

Memory trick: Split the load, keep half alive if one side goes dark

Pressure altitude corrected for nondstandard temperature; represents the altitude the airplane 'feels' it is performing at.

• High temperature, humidity, and altitude all increase density altitude
• High DA reduces engine power, propeller efficiency, and lift
• Always degrades takeoff, climb, and landing performance

Memory trick: Hot, High, Humid = Hurts performance

Before a student pilot may solo, the instructor must provide training in required maneuvers, determine proficiency, and endorse the logbook for the specific make and model within the preceding 90 days.

• Training must cover maneuvers listed in 61.87(d)
• Endorsement is specific to make and model of aircraft
• Endorsement is valid for 90 days
• Student must also meet aeronautical knowledge requirements per 61.87(b)

Memory trick: '90 days, same plane' is the rule for solo endorsements.

Airport rotating beacons use specific flash color combinations to identify the type of airport at night.

• Civilian land airport: white and green
• Military airport: dual white flash and green
• Water airport: white and yellow
• Heliport: white, green, yellow

Memory trick: 'Double flash, salute the Army' — two whites mean military

Wing shape and twist (washout) determine where along the span the wing first reaches critical AOA and stalls.

• Elliptical wing stalls uniformly across span (least warning)
• Rectangular/tapered wing with washout stalls root first
• Root-first stall preserves aileron effectiveness and gives buffet warning

Memory trick: Elliptical = 'all at once' stall; washout wing = 'roots go first, tips stay flying.'

Colored arcs on the airspeed indicator denote operating speed ranges: white (flap range), green (normal range), yellow (caution, smooth air only), and a red line (never-exceed speed, VNE).

• White arc: VS0 to VFE, flap operating range
• Green arc: VS1 to VNO, normal operating range
• Yellow arc: VNO to VNE, caution range, smooth air only
• Red line: VNE, never-exceed speed

Memory trick: White for flaps, Green for go, Yellow for careful, Red for never

Cloud height in a METAR is reported in three digits representing hundreds of feet AGL, followed by the cloud type if significant (CB or TCU).

• SKC/CLR = no clouds reported
• FEW/SCT/BKN/OVC describe coverage
• Height digits x100 = feet AGL
• CB and TCU denote cumulonimbus/towering cumulus

Memory trick: Three digits, times a hundred — that's your ceiling number.

NOTAM (D) provides operational data like closures and outages distributed nationally; FDC NOTAMs are regulatory, covering TFRs and procedure changes.

• NOTAM (D) = distant, nationally distributed
• Covers taxiway/runway closures, lighting, obstructions
• FDC NOTAMs are regulatory (TFRs, amended procedures, chart changes)

Memory trick: 'D is for Details on the field, FDC is for Flight rules Changed'

P-factor is the yawing tendency caused by the descending propeller blade producing more thrust than the ascending blade at high angles of attack.

• Most pronounced at high AOA/low airspeed, such as climb
• Descending blade (right side, clockwise prop) has higher AOA
• Causes left-yawing tendency in most U.S. singles
• Corrected with right rudder

Memory trick: 'P for Pushier blade' — the descending blade pushes harder

The ceiling is the height above ground of the lowest cloud layer reported as broken or overcast, or the vertical visibility in an indefinite ceiling condition.

• Scattered (SCT) or few (FEW) layers do not count as ceilings
• Only broken (BKN) or overcast (OVC) layers define a ceiling
• Vertical visibility (VV) is used for obscured skies

Memory trick: Broken or Overcast Builds the ceiling Base

In a steep turn, the outer wing moves faster than the inner wing (larger radius), generating more lift and tending to increase bank angle without additional input.

• Caused by speed differential between inner and outer wingtips
• Becomes more pronounced with steeper bank/smaller radius
• Requires opposite aileron pressure to maintain constant bank

Memory trick: Outer wing runs faster, so it wants to lift higher and roll more

Opaque, white, and rough ice formed by the rapid freezing of small supercooled water droplets on impact with an aircraft surface.

• Forms from small supercooled water droplets.
• Appears opaque, white, and rough.
• Rapidly alters airfoil shape, increasing drag and decreasing lift.

Memory trick: Clear and Rime, don't climb or dive, or you'll be a Glaze in time!