FAA Private Pilot Airplane (PAR) flashcards

Useful load is the weight of the pilot, copilot, passengers, baggage, usable fuel, and drainable oil. It is calculated as the difference between the maximum takeoff weight and the empty weight of the aircraft.

• Useful Load = Max Takeoff Weight - Empty Weight
• Any increase in empty weight reduces useful load
• Any decrease in empty weight increases useful load

Memory trick: Empty Goes Up, Useful Goes Down

A 'FROM' indication on a VOR receiver means the aircraft is flying away from the VOR station on the selected radial, or is currently located on that radial.

• Indicates flying away from the VOR.
• When CDI is centered, OBS shows the radial you are on.
• Opposite of a 'TO' indication.

Memory trick: FROM means you're flying FROM the radial you've set.

Conditions that reduce aircraft performance or increase drag/resistance during the takeoff roll, thus requiring a longer distance to achieve liftoff.

• High density altitude (high temp, high humidity, high elevation) reduces engine power and lift.
• Tailwind increases ground speed required for liftoff.
• Soft-field, wet, or rough runways increase rolling friction/drag.
• Heavy weight increases inertia and required lift.

Memory trick: Hot, Heavy, Humpy, Headwind's Not, but Tail's Got.

High density altitude means the air is less dense, causing aircraft to perform as if they are at a much higher physical altitude. This significantly degrades takeoff, climb, and landing performance.

• Reduced engine power output
• Reduced aerodynamic lift from wings
• Increased takeoff and landing distances
• Decreased rate of climb

Memory trick: Hot, High, and Heavy = Harder to Fly

Airspace where flight is subject to restrictions due to the existence of unusual, often invisible, hazards to aircraft.

• Depicted by a blue line with hash marks on sectional charts.
• Requires prior authorization from the controlling agency to enter, or is active at specific times.
• Hazards include artillery firing, guided missiles, etc.

Memory trick: MOAs are Magenta, Restricted is Royal (blue) with hashes.

The VOR 'TO' flag indicates that the selected course, if followed, will lead the aircraft to the VOR station.

• Points towards the VOR station.
• The OBS setting indicates the magnetic course to fly TO the station.
• The radial the aircraft is currently on is 180 degrees opposite the selected 'TO' course.

Memory trick: TO means Towards, so your course leads to the dot.

The total moment of an aircraft is the sum of the moments of all individual weight items (empty aircraft, occupants, fuel, baggage) about a common datum. It is used to calculate the aircraft's Center of Gravity (CG).

• Moment = Weight × Arm
• Datum is a fixed reference point for all arm measurements
• Total moment / Total weight = CG location

Memory trick: Each Weight's Moment, Then Sum It

On a sectional chart, a magenta segmented circle denotes an airport with a control tower that operates on a part-time basis.

• Indicates part-time control tower operations.
• Airspace reverts to Class G or E surface area when the tower is closed.
• Differs from a blue segmented circle (full-time tower).

Memory trick: Circle colors tell the tower's hours.

A technology used in GPS receivers to assess the integrity of the GPS signals to ensure their accuracy and reliability, particularly for aviation.

• Crucial for IFR flight to ensure position accuracy.
• Requires a minimum number of satellites (typically 5) to perform its function.
• Alerts the pilot if the integrity of the GPS signal cannot be guaranteed.

Memory trick: RAIM checks the numbers, keeps your flight from tumbles.

The weight capacity available for additional payload (like baggage) after accounting for the pilot, passengers, and fuel.

• Calculated by subtracting empty weight from maximum takeoff weight to get total useful load.
• Then subtract the weight of pilot, passengers, and fuel from the total useful load.
• Avgas weighs 6 lbs per gallon.

Memory trick: To find your baggage load, subtract all others from the useful road.

Using a VOR receiver to determine position relative to a VOR station and navigate to or from it, interpreting the 'TO' or 'FROM' flag and the Course Deviation Indicator (CDI).

• 'TO' flag indicates flying towards the VOR, 'FROM' indicates flying away.
• CDI deflection indicates the aircraft's position relative to the selected course.
• CDI deflected right means the course is to the right of the aircraft (or aircraft is left of course).
• CDI deflected left means the course is to the left of the aircraft (or aircraft is right of course).

Memory trick: TO the VOR: 'Turn Towards' the needle.

Useful load is the difference between the maximum takeoff weight and the empty weight of an aircraft. It represents the total weight of occupants, baggage, usable fuel, and drainable oil.

• Useful load = Max Takeoff Weight - Empty Weight
• Includes pilot, passengers, cargo, and usable fuel
• Must not exceed useful load capacity for safe operation

Memory trick: Load Up Carefully, Fly Right!

Determining how much weight can be added or removed at a specific location to keep the aircraft's center of gravity within its allowable limits.

• Uses the principle of moments: Weight x Arm = Moment.
• The sum of all moments divided by the sum of all weights gives the overall CG.
• Solving for an unknown weight or location often involves algebraic manipulation of the moment equation.

Memory trick: Moment balance: current + new equals total at limit.

The angle between the true course and the true heading, necessary to compensate for the effect of wind on an aircraft's flight path.

• Calculated to maintain the desired course over the ground.
• Accounts for wind direction and speed relative to the aircraft's movement.
• Determines the true heading an aircraft must fly to achieve its true course.

Memory trick: To Stay on Course, Adjust Your Nose with the Wind's Force.

A common GPS function that allows a pilot to quickly select a destination and receive immediate guidance (course, distance, time) to that point.

• Provides a direct, straight-line course to the selected waypoint/airport.
• Extremely useful for diversions or unplanned route changes.
• Displays magnetic course, distance, and estimated time en route.

Memory trick: For quick diversions, GPS 'direct-to' is your best solution.

The consequences of an aircraft's center of gravity being located too far forward, often leading to increased stability but reduced control authority.

• Requires more elevator deflection (back pressure) for rotation and pitch control.
• Increased stall speed.
• Increased drag and reduced cruise performance.
• Improved longitudinal stability.

Memory trick: Forward CG: Nose-heavy and hard to lift.

Pressure altitude is the altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding to a particular pressure. Lower-than-standard pressure results in a higher pressure altitude, which negatively impacts aircraft performance.

• Lower pressure = higher pressure altitude
• Higher pressure altitude reduces engine power and wing lift
• Results in longer takeoff/landing distances and reduced climb rate

Memory trick: Pressure Low, Performance Slow

A headwind component during landing reduces the aircraft's ground speed relative to its indicated airspeed. This allows for a lower touchdown ground speed and increased braking effectiveness, resulting in a shorter landing roll.

• Reduces ground speed at touchdown
• Increases aerodynamic braking effectiveness
• Shortens total landing distance

Memory trick: Headwind Helps Halt

To determine the maximum usable fuel that can be added, calculate the current weight of the aircraft (empty weight + all other load items) and subtract it from the maximum gross weight. Then convert the remaining weight capacity into gallons.

• Max fuel weight = Max Gross Weight - (Empty Weight + Occupants + Baggage)
• Fuel weight (lbs) / Fuel density (lbs/gallon) = Fuel volume (gallons)
• Always ensure total weight remains below max gross weight

Memory trick: Capacity Minus Current, Then Gallons

A type of VOR station specifically designed for use in the terminal area around airports, characterized by a limited service volume.

• Identified by a 'T' suffix next to its frequency on sectional charts.
• Service volume extends from 1,000 feet AGL up to 12,000 feet AGL, with a radius of 25 NM.
• Used primarily for approach and departure procedures.

Memory trick: Navigating with VORs, remember their 'Service' to 'Terminal', 'Low', and 'High' flyers.

An air navigation aid developed by the FAA to augment GPS by providing enhanced accuracy, integrity, and availability for aircraft navigation, particularly for precision approaches.

• Consists of ground reference stations, master stations, and geostationary satellites.
• Corrects GPS signal errors and provides integrity messages.
• Enables GPS to be used for all phases of flight, including precision approaches (e.g., LPV).
• Required for GPS approaches to LPV minimums.

Memory trick: WAA-S UP? GPS needs help accuracy and integrity.

The process of adjusting a true course for magnetic variation and compass deviation to determine the actual heading to be flown on the aircraft's magnetic compass.

• True Course (TC) is corrected for Variation to get Magnetic Course (MC).
• Magnetic Course (MC) is corrected for Deviation to get Compass Heading (CH).
• Rules: East is Least (subtract), West is Best (add) for Variation (TC to MC). For Deviation (MC to CH), West is Best (add), East is Least (subtract).

Memory trick: True Virgins Make Dull Company.

Adding weight to an aircraft will shift the Center of Gravity (CG) in the direction of the added weight. The magnitude of the shift depends on the weight added and its arm relative to the current CG.

• Weight added forward of CG shifts CG forward.
• Weight added aft of CG shifts CG aft.
• Always verify new CG remains within approved limits.

Memory trick: Add Weight, CG Follows

The altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding to a particular pressure level; it is the indicated altitude when an altimeter is set to 29.92 inHg.

• Used for aircraft performance calculations.
• Calculated by adjusting field elevation for non-standard altimeter settings.
• If altimeter setting is 29.92 inHg, pressure altitude equals field elevation.

Memory trick: Pressure Altitude: It's the standard, when 29.92 is your command.

On a sectional chart, a solid magenta line delineates the boundary of Class E airspace that begins at 700 feet AGL.

• Indicates Class E airspace extending upwards from 700 feet AGL.
• Often found surrounding smaller airports with instrument approaches.
• Differs from dashed magenta (Class E surface area) or blue lines (Class B/C/D).

Memory trick: Magenta is E for Elevated, Blue is B, C, D for Busy.

Unless otherwise authorized or restricted, no person may operate an aircraft below 10,000 feet MSL at an indicated airspeed of more than 250 knots.

• Altitude: Below 10,000 feet MSL.
• Speed Limit: 250 knots indicated airspeed (KIAS).
• Applies: To all airspace classes unless more restrictive limits apply (e.g., Class B, C, D).
• Purpose: Safety and collision avoidance in busier air traffic areas.

Memory trick: Speed Limits: 250 Below 10k, 200 Near Airports.

A 100-hour inspection is required for an aircraft if it is used to carry persons for hire, or if it is used for flight instruction for hire. It is not required for private operations or for instruction not for hire.

• Required for aircraft used for hire to carry persons.
• Required for aircraft used for flight instruction for hire.
• Not required for private aircraft operations.
• Not required for flight instruction not for hire (e.g., a flight review for a private pilot).

Memory trick: Annual And Hundred-Hour Inspections Ensure Safety

A flight review is required every 24 calendar months to act as pilot in command.

• The period ends on the last day of the 24th month.
• Initial pilot certificate issuance or a new rating can substitute for a flight review for 24 calendar months.
• Passing a proficiency check for an additional pilot certificate or rating also satisfies the requirement.

Memory trick: Two full years, then fly again, or you're grounded, my friend!

When aircraft of different categories are converging, the aircraft less maneuverable has the right-of-way.

• Balloons have the right-of-way over gliders.
• Gliders have the right-of-way over airships.
• Airships have the right-of-way over airplanes.
• This hierarchy of maneuverability takes precedence over the 'aircraft on the right' rule.

Memory trick: Balloon, Glider, Airship, Plane: The slower, less agile, gets to reign!

To act as pilot in command of an aircraft, a pilot must have satisfactorily completed a flight review (or an equivalent approved activity) within the preceding 24 calendar months.

• Requirement: Satisfactory completion of a flight review.
• Frequency: Within the preceding 24 calendar months.
• Purpose: To ensure pilot proficiency and knowledge.
• Equivalent Activities: Passing a proficiency check for a certificate/rating, completing a WINGS phase, etc.

Memory trick: PIC: Must Have Medical, Flight Review, and Recent Experience.

For VFR flight in Class E airspace below 10,000 feet MSL (including at 8,500 feet MSL), the minimum flight visibility is 3 statute miles, and cloud clearance is 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above, and 2,000 feet horizontal from clouds.

• Airspace: Class E.
• Altitude: Below 10,000 feet MSL.
• Visibility: 3 statute miles.
• Cloud Clearance: 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above, 2,000 feet horizontal.

Memory trick: Echo's VFR: Below 10K, '3-152' Rule; Above 10K, '5-111' Rule.

The ARROW acronym helps remember the documents required to be onboard an aircraft: Airworthiness, Registration, Radio (if applicable), Operating Limitations, Weight and Balance.

• All documents must be current and readily accessible.
• Operating Limitations are typically found in the POH or AFM.
• Maintenance records are required but not necessarily onboard the aircraft.

Memory trick: ARROW: Always Remember What's Onboard!

14 CFR Part 91.21 prohibits the use of portable electronic devices that could interfere with the aircraft's navigation or communication systems.

• The pilot in command is responsible for determining non-interference.
• This applies to devices like EFBs, cell phones, laptops, etc.
• Specific aircraft types or operations may have additional restrictions.

Memory trick: Don't bring your devices if they make the airplane dizzy!

No person may operate an aircraft at an indicated airspeed of more than 250 knots (288 mph) below 10,000 feet MSL.

• This is a general rule that applies to all airspace below 10,000 feet MSL.
• Specific airspace (e.g., Class B/C beneath shelf) may have lower speed limits.
• This limit helps manage traffic density and reaction time.

Memory trick: Ten thousand feet, two-fifty is sweet, any higher, faster you meet!

To act as pilot in command of an aircraft, a person must hold a current and appropriate medical certificate, unless operating under specific exceptions like Sport Pilot privileges with a driver's license.

• Requirement: Current and appropriate medical certificate.
• Condition: Must be valid on the day of the flight.
• Exceptions: Sport pilots can use a valid driver's license under certain conditions.
• No Exceptions: No flight review, certificate issuance, or other currency can substitute for a medical certificate.

Memory trick: PIC: Certificate, Medical, Current, and Rated.

For VFR flight in Class G airspace at night, below 10,000 feet MSL, the minimums are 3 SM visibility and cloud clearances of 500' below, 1,000' above, and 2,000' horizontal.

• This applies regardless of altitude up to 10,000 MSL.
• The 'clear of clouds' rule is only for Class G day, below 1,200 AGL.
• Night operations generally have higher visibility and cloud clearance requirements due to reduced visual references.

Memory trick: Golf at night, three miles of light, five-hundred, thousand, two-thousand, keep clouds out of sight!

The NTSB must be immediately notified of any aircraft accident (which includes serious injury or substantial damage to the aircraft) or certain specified incidents.

• Requirement: Immediate notification.
• Triggering Events: Any aircraft accident (fatal injury, serious injury, substantial damage).
• Other Incidents: Flight control system malfunction, in-flight fire, aircraft collision in flight, turbine engine failure, etc.
• Purpose: To allow NTSB to investigate promptly.

Memory trick: NTSB: Accident? Incident? Notify IMMEDIATELY!

To operate in Class C airspace, an aircraft must establish two-way radio communication with ATC prior to entry, be equipped with an operating Mode C transponder, and adhere to specific VFR weather minimums.

• Entry Requirement: Establish two-way radio communication with ATC.
• Equipment Requirement: Operating Mode C transponder.
• Weather Minimums: 3 statute miles visibility, 1,000 feet above, 500 feet below, 2,000 feet horizontal from clouds.
• Speed Limit: 250 knots below 10,000 feet MSL, and 200 knots within 4 NM of primary airport at or below 2,500 feet AGL.

Memory trick: Charlie's Airspace: Communicate, Transponder, Clear.

A student pilot must receive specific ground and flight training from an authorized instructor for a particular Class B airspace area and receive an endorsement in their logbook to conduct solo flights in that Class B airspace.

• Pilot Type: Student Pilot.
• Operation: Solo flight into Class B airspace.
• Training: Ground and flight training specific to that Class B airspace.
• Endorsement: Required from an authorized instructor in the student's logbook.

Memory trick: Student Pilot: Solo, Cross-Country, and Class B Endorsements are Key.

To operate in Class B airspace, a pilot must receive a specific ATC clearance to enter, in addition to establishing two-way radio communication.

• This is a key differentiator from Class C and D airspace.
• ATC must explicitly say 'cleared into Class Bravo airspace' or similar.
• Entering without clearance is a violation.

Memory trick: Bravo says 'Clearance!', Charlie says 'Chat!'

Aircraft operating under VFR have specific inspection requirements, including annual, ELT, and transponder checks, but altimeter/static system checks are for IFR every 24 months.

• Annual inspection: 12 calendar months.
• ELT inspection: 12 calendar months (and battery replacement).
• Transponder inspection: 24 calendar months (if required for airspace).
• Altimeter and static system inspection: 24 calendar months (only for IFR operations).

Memory trick: A.A.V.I.A.T.E.: Always Check Everything Out!

The Airworthiness Certificate certifies that an aircraft conforms to its type design and is in a condition for safe operation, and it must be displayed in the aircraft.

• Purpose: Certifies conformity to type design and safe operating condition.
• Validity: Remains valid as long as the aircraft is maintained and operated per regulations.
• Display: Must be visible to passengers and crew.
• Issued by: FAA.

Memory trick: Certificates: Airworthy for Safety, Registered for Identity.

For VFR flight in Class G airspace during daylight hours, at altitudes above 1,200 feet AGL but below 10,000 feet MSL, the minimums are 1 statute mile visibility and remaining clear of clouds.

• Applies to Class G airspace.
• Daytime operations.
• Altitude: above 1,200 feet AGL, but below 10,000 feet MSL.
• Minimum visibility: 1 statute mile.

Memory trick: Always Check Time And Location For Good Weather

Over sparsely populated areas, aircraft must maintain an altitude of 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a 2,000-foot horizontal radius of the aircraft.

• This applies to all aircraft operations, except when necessary for takeoff or landing.
• It's about obstacles, not just terrain elevation.
• Different rules apply for congested areas and other areas.

Memory trick: Never go low, unless you're starting or landing, or you'll get a big FAA scolding!

A flight review can be satisfied by completing a pilot proficiency check for an additional pilot certificate or rating, or by receiving an initial pilot certificate.

• This resets the 24-calendar-month period for the flight review.
• Applies to any new certificate or rating (e.g., instrument rating, commercial pilot certificate).
• Ensures the pilot has demonstrated proficiency recently.

Memory trick: A new rating or initial cert, makes your flight review current, no hurt!

The minimum pilot certificate required to operate in Class D airspace is a Sport Pilot certificate, provided the pilot has received the necessary training and endorsement for controlled airspace.

• Airspace: Class D.
• Minimum Certificate: Sport Pilot.
• Requirement: Must have received training and endorsement for controlled airspace.
• Other certificates (Recreational, Private, etc.) are also valid with appropriate endorsements.

Memory trick: Certificates Unlock Airspace: Alpha Bravo Charlie Delta Echo Golf.

The minimum flight visibility required for VFR operations within Class D airspace is 3 statute miles.

• Applies to all altitudes within Class D.
• Must also maintain specific cloud clearances (500 below, 1,000 above, 2,000 horizontal).

Memory trick: Don't Dive Deep without 3 Miles of Sight!

NTSB Part 830 requires immediate notification to the nearest NTSB field office for any aircraft accident, defined as an occurrence with death, serious injury, or substantial damage.

• Substantial damage means damage that affects the structural strength, performance, or flight characteristics of the aircraft and that would normally require major repair or replacement of the affected component.
• Engine failure and subsequent crash with significant damage typically constitutes substantial damage.
• The lack of serious injury does not negate the requirement for immediate notification if substantial damage occurred.

Memory trick: Death, Serious Injury, or Substantial Damage? Call NTSB, don't delay, don't just manage!

For VFR flight in Class G airspace during the day, when operating above 1,200 feet AGL and below 10,000 feet MSL, the minimums are 1 statute mile visibility, 1,000 feet below clouds, 1,000 feet above clouds, and 1 statute mile horizontal from clouds.

• Airspace: Class G.
• Time: Day.
• Altitude: Above 1,200 feet AGL and below 10,000 feet MSL.
• Visibility: 1 statute mile.

Memory trick: Golf's VFR: Day/Night, Above/Below, Know Your Numbers.

When two aircraft are converging at approximately the same altitude, the aircraft to the right has the right-of-way, and the aircraft to the left must give way.

• Scenario: Two aircraft converging at approximately the same altitude.
• Rule: Aircraft to the right has the right-of-way.
• Action: Aircraft to the left must alter course to avoid the other aircraft.

Memory trick: Right-of-Way: Head-on Right, Converging Right, Overtaking Right, Landing Down.

To carry passengers at night, a pilot must have performed at least 3 takeoffs and 3 landings to a full stop in the same category and class aircraft within the preceding 90 days, specifically between 1 hour after sunset and 1 hour before sunrise.

• Required for carrying passengers at night.
• 3 takeoffs and 3 landings to a full stop.
• Must be in the same category and class aircraft.
• Must occur within the preceding 90 days.

Memory trick: Pilots Must Always Be Current to Fly Passengers Safely.

A third-class medical certificate issued to a pilot under 40 years old is valid for 60 calendar months for private pilot operations, expiring on the last day of the month.

• Category: Third-Class Medical.
• Pilot's Age: Under 40 years old.
• Validity Period: 60 calendar months.
• Expiration: Last day of the month, 60 months after issuance.

Memory trick: Medical Validity: Age Matters, Month Ends.

A large white 'X' painted on a runway or portion of a runway indicates that it is permanently closed to all aircraft for landing, takeoff, and taxiing.

• Indicates permanent closure.
• Applies to the entire runway or marked portion.
• Aircraft are prohibited from using or entering a closed runway.

Memory trick: An 'X' marks the spot where planes don't go.

Moment is a measure of the force that causes an object to rotate. In aviation, it's calculated as weight multiplied by the arm (distance from a datum).

• Moment = Weight × Arm.
• Units are typically pound-inches (lb-in).
• Used to determine the aircraft's center of gravity (CG).
• Positive moment for items aft of the datum, negative for items forward (if datum is at the nose).

Memory trick: Weigh your Arm, get your Moment.

For VFR flight in Class G airspace during the day, above 1,200 feet AGL but below 10,000 feet MSL, specific visibility and cloud clearance minimums apply.

• Minimum visibility: 3 statute miles.
• Cloud clearance: 1,000 feet above, 500 feet below, 2,000 feet horizontal.
• Applies to Class G airspace above 1,200 feet AGL up to, but not including, 10,000 feet MSL.

Memory trick: Golfers need a clear view, 3 miles and around the clouds.

The 'TEMPO' group in a TAF indicates temporary fluctuations in forecast weather conditions that are expected to last for less than one hour at a time and cover less than half of the specified period.

• Indicates temporary changes.
• Conditions expected for less than 1 hour each occurrence.
• Total duration of temporary conditions covers less than 50% of the period.
• Used for visibility, weather, and sky conditions.

Memory trick: TAF groups: 'FM' is From, 'BECMG' is Becoming, 'TEMPO' is Temporary, 'PROB' is Probability.

Density altitude is calculated by first determining pressure altitude, then adjusting for non-standard temperature. For every 1°C deviation from standard temperature, density altitude changes by approximately 120 feet.

• Pressure Altitude (PA) is the altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding to a particular pressure.
• Standard temperature at sea level is 15°C; decreases 2°C per 1,000 feet.
• Density Altitude (DA) = PA + (120 * (OAT - Standard Temp at PA)).
• Higher than standard temperature increases density altitude, reducing aircraft performance.

Memory trick: Density Altitude: 'PAST' the Standard Temperature, add 120 times the difference.

The approximate height of cloud bases can be estimated by using the surface temperature and dew point spread.

• Formula: (Surface Temperature - Dew Point) / 2.5 * 1,000 feet AGL.
• This estimates the lifting condensation level (LCL).
• The '2.5' factor is a simplified approximation for the difference between the dry adiabatic lapse rate and the dew point lapse rate.

Memory trick: Cloud Base: Temperature Minus Dew Point, then Divide by Two Point Five, Times a Thousand.

In a stable atmosphere, vertically displaced air tends to return to its original position, leading to horizontal cloud development if moisture is present.

• Air parcels lifted in a stable atmosphere become cooler than surrounding air.
• This inhibits strong vertical cloud growth.
• If moisture is present, stratiform (layer-like) clouds are likely to form.

Memory trick: Stable air, like a calm lake, spreads its clouds flat and wide.

Higher density altitude (due to high temperature, high humidity, or high elevation) reduces aircraft performance, leading to longer takeoff distances.

• Hotter air is less dense.
• Higher elevation means less dense air.
• High humidity makes air less dense.
• Less dense air reduces engine power and wing lift.

Memory trick: Hot, High, and Humid means Heavy lift, Hard to climb.