FAA Private Pilot Airplane (PAR) flashcards

Guidance to prevent decompression sickness from residual nitrogen expanding at altitude after scuba diving.

• No decompression stop required: wait at least 12 hours
• Decompression stop required: wait at least 24 hours
• Altitude reduces ambient pressure, allowing nitrogen bubbles to form

Memory trick: No stop, 12; Deco stop, 24 — wait it out before you fly

CG location is found by dividing total moment (sum of each item's weight × arm) by total weight.

• Moment = weight × arm
• Total moment ÷ total weight = CG
• Each item (empty weight, occupants, fuel, baggage) contributes its own moment

Memory trick: Weigh it, arm it, sum it, divide it.

The standard atmospheric temperature lapse rate is approximately 2°C (3.5°F) per 1,000 feet of altitude increase, used to estimate temperature aloft under standard conditions.

• Standard lapse rate: 2°C per 1,000 ft (or 3.5°F per 1,000 ft)
• Standard sea-level temperature is 15°C
• Used to estimate freezing level and temperature at altitude

Memory trick: 2 degrees Celsius cooler for every thousand feet higher

A blocked static port traps pressure at the altitude of the blockage, causing pitot-static instruments to misbehave predictably during subsequent altitude changes.

• Altimeter freezes at the altitude when static blocked
• ASI reads low during climb, high during descent (with static blocked)
• VSI will read zero after blockage, regardless of actual climb/descent
• Alternate static source or breaking the instrument glass provides emergency correction

Memory trick: Trapped static pressure lies about your climb — ASI reads too slow going up.

Air masses are named for their source region's moisture (maritime/continental) and temperature (tropical/polar/arctic) characteristics.

• mT = maritime tropical = warm, moist
• cP = continental polar = cold, dry
• Air mass properties are modified as they move over different surfaces

Memory trick: Maritime = wet like the sea, Tropical = hot like the tropics

A left-turning tendency caused by the descending propeller blade producing more thrust than the ascending blade when the airplane is at a high angle of attack.

• Most pronounced at high power, low airspeed, high angle of attack
• Descending blade has greater AOA and thrust than ascending blade
• One of four left-turning tendencies along with torque, slipstream, and gyroscopic precession

Memory trick: P-factor points the nose left when the nose points up.

When operating during daylight hours at an airport within controlled airspace, a lighted rotating beacon indicates weather is below basic VFR minimums.

• Normally beacons operate from sunset to sunrise
• Daytime operation in controlled airspace signals IFR conditions
• Does not legally require pilots to obtain clearance, but is a strong indicator

Memory trick: 'Beacon by day means bad weather's here to stay'

Fog that forms when cold air moves over much warmer water, causing evaporation that quickly condenses into visible wisps resembling steam.

• Common in fall over lakes and oceans as water retains summer warmth
• Can cause low-level turbulence and icing due to instability
• Appears as 'sea smoke' rising off the water

Memory trick: Steam fog looks like a hot cup of coffee steaming on a cold day

A narrow band of active thunderstorms, often forming ahead of and parallel to a fast-moving cold front, capable of producing severe turbulence, hail, and damaging winds.

• Often develops 50-300 miles ahead of the actual cold front
• Can produce more severe weather than the front itself
• Associated with severe wind shear and tornado potential

Memory trick: Squall line = a 'wall' of storms marching ahead of the front

Rime ice is a rough, opaque, milky-white ice that forms when small supercooled water droplets freeze rapidly on contact, most commonly in stratiform clouds.

• Forms from small droplets that freeze quickly, trapping air
• Rough, brittle, and opaque in appearance
• Common in stratiform clouds with light-to-moderate icing

Memory trick: Rime is rough and rice-like white; Clear is smooth and see-through

A microburst is a small-scale, intense downdraft that spreads outward upon reaching the surface, producing a rapid shift from headwind to tailwind that is extremely hazardous during takeoff or landing.

• Often associated with virga and convective activity
• Causes airspeed increase then decrease within seconds
• Can produce vertical and horizontal wind shear exceeding aircraft performance capability

Memory trick: 'Up then Down, Micro Frown' — headwind gain then tailwind loss signals a microburst.

Absent other published guidance, the standard VFR traffic pattern is flown at 1,000 feet above airport elevation using left-hand turns.

• 1,000 feet AGL is the typical recommended pattern altitude for light aircraft
• Left turns are standard unless right traffic is indicated
• Segmented circles or airport publications may specify different altitudes/directions

Memory trick: 'A thousand feet, turn left, that's the pattern's best'

A spatial disorientation illusion in which a pilot in a prolonged turn perceives level flight, then inadvertently tightens the turn into a steep, descending spiral while trying to level the wings.

• Caused by vestibular system adapting to sustained turns
• Common in IMC without instrument reliance
• Pilot may pull back on yoke, tightening the spiral and losing altitude

Memory trick: Trust instruments, not your inner ear's tricks

An occluded front occurs when a faster-moving cold front catches up to and overtakes a slower warm front, lifting the warm air mass off the ground and combining features of both front types.

• Cold occlusion: cold air behind front is colder than air ahead
• Warm occlusion: cold air behind front is warmer than air ahead
• Produces complex, mixed weather patterns

Memory trick: Occlusion = fronts collide and combine

Pressure altitude is the altitude indicated when the altimeter is set to 29.92 inches of Hg; it is found by correcting field elevation using the difference between the current altimeter setting and 29.92.

• Each 0.10 inch of Hg difference from 29.92 equals about 100 feet of altitude
• If setting is above 29.92, subtract the correction from field elevation
• If setting is below 29.92, add the correction to field elevation

Memory trick: 'High is a Lie, Subtract to Comply' — high altimeter setting means subtract the correction.

A layer of the atmosphere in which temperature increases with altitude instead of decreasing, often trapping smoke, haze, and fog near the surface.

• Common on clear, calm nights due to surface radiational cooling
• Creates very stable air, suppressing vertical motion
• Can trap pollutants and moisture, reducing surface visibility

Memory trick: Inversion = temp goes the WRONG way (up, not down)

A risk management framework covering Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment, and External pressures used to identify and mitigate flight risks before a flight.

• P = Pilot fitness and experience
• A = Aircraft airworthiness and performance
• V = enVironment (weather, terrain, airspace)
• E = External pressures (schedules, passengers, self-induced pressure)

Memory trick: Pilots Avoid Vexing Externalities

Three ingredients must combine for thunderstorm development: sufficient moisture, an unstable air mass, and a source of lift.

• Moisture provides fuel for cloud/precipitation growth
• Instability allows continued upward parcel motion
• Lift can come from fronts, convergence, terrain, or heating

Memory trick: MIL: Moisture, Instability, Lift — like fueling, arming, and triggering a storm

The PK WND remark in a METAR reports the peak wind direction and speed observed since the last routine report, followed by the time (UTC) it occurred.

• Format: PK WND dddff/(hh)mm
• Direction and speed given in degrees true and knots
• Time is in UTC, often just minutes if within the same hour

Memory trick: PK WND = Peak wind, then the clock time it hit

A segmented circle installed at nontowered airports provides traffic pattern information via extensions showing the direction of turns for each runway.

• Standard pattern is left turns unless indicated otherwise
• L-shaped extensions from the circle show turn direction per runway
• Also may include a wind indicator such as a tetrahedron or wind sock

Memory trick: 'The segmented circle tells the story, follow its arms for glory'

The tendency of an airplane with wing dihedral to produce a rolling moment that returns the wings to level flight after being displaced in bank, due to sideslip creating unequal lift between the wings.

• Wing dihedral is the upward angle of the wings from the wing root to tip
• Sideslip toward the lower wing increases its effective AOA, increasing lift
• This creates lateral (roll) static stability

Memory trick: Dihedral is a built-in autopilot for wings-level flight.

The height of cumulus cloud bases can be estimated using the temperature-dew point spread: divide the spread (°C) by 2.5 and multiply by 1,000 to get the height in feet AGL.

• Formula: Cloud base (ft AGL) = (Temp − Dew Point in °C) ÷ 2.5 × 1,000
• Add field elevation to convert AGL height to MSL height
• This estimate applies to convective (cumulus) cloud formation, not stratiform layers

Memory trick: 'Spread by 2.5, Cloud Base Comes Alive' — divide the spread by 2.5, times 1,000 for AGL height.

An aft-loaded CG reduces longitudinal stability and elevator authority, making stall and spin recovery more difficult.

• Aft CG reduces nose-down pitching moment available
• Stability decreases as CG moves aft
• Stall recovery becomes more difficult with aft CG

Memory trick: Aft CG, less stable, harder to save.

A yellow X placed at each end of a runway (or displayed at both ends and mid-runway for extended closures) signifies the runway is closed and must not be used.

• Marking is a large yellow X painted on the runway surface
• Indicates runway unusable for landing, takeoff, or taxi
• Also published via NOTAM to alert pilots before flight

Memory trick: 'X marks the spot you should NOT drop'

Before entering Class D airspace, a pilot must establish two-way radio communication with ATC, meaning the controller has responded to the aircraft using its call sign.

• A response of 'standby' with the call sign satisfies the requirement
• Simply transmitting without acknowledgment does not satisfy it
• Applies similarly to Class C airspace before entry

Memory trick: 'They must say YOUR name before you claim the game'

Special use airspace where military training activities occur; VFR flight is allowed but caution and traffic awareness are recommended.

• Depicted with magenta hatched lines and named on sectional charts
• Contact Flight Service or listed frequency to check activity status
• Military aircraft may be operating at high speeds or performing maneuvers

Memory trick: MOA: Maybe Others Around—look before you fly

Abnormally rapid and deep breathing that expels too much carbon dioxide from the blood, causing dizziness, tingling extremities, and lightheadedness.

• Often triggered by stress, fear, or anxiety in flight
• Symptoms mimic hypoxia but occur without altitude cause
• Corrective action: slow breathing, talk aloud, or breathe into a bag

Memory trick: Too much air out (CO2 loss) not too little air in

The tendency of an aircraft's oscillations following a disturbance to increase, decrease, or remain constant over time.

• Positive dynamic stability = oscillations dampen out
• Negative dynamic stability = oscillations grow (divergent)
• Neutral dynamic stability = oscillations stay constant
• Phugoid is a slow pitch/airspeed oscillation trading altitude for airspeed

Memory trick: Static asks 'does it try to return?' Dynamic asks 'does it actually settle down over time?'

High humidity slightly reduces air density (water vapor is lighter than dry air molecules), compounding the performance-robbing effects of high density altitude.

• Moist air is less dense than dry air at the same temperature/pressure
• Humidity effects are usually not on performance charts but are real
• Combines with heat and altitude to reduce power and lift further

Memory trick: Moist air makes muscle weaker.

A yawing tendency toward the outside of a turn caused by increased induced drag on the up-going wing (down aileron) compared to the down-going wing (up aileron) during roll input.

• Caused by unequal induced drag between the two ailerons during roll input
• Corrected by applying coordinated rudder in the direction of the turn
• More pronounced with slower airspeeds and larger aileron deflections

Memory trick: Down aileron drags the nose the wrong way.

The angle of attack at which the wing produces maximum lift; exceeding it causes a stall regardless of airspeed.

• Stalls can occur at any airspeed or attitude
• Accelerated stalls occur above normal stall speed
• Load factor increases required lift and thus AOA in turns
• Recovery requires reducing angle of attack

Memory trick: It's the angle, not the speed, that stalls the wing.

A deficiency of oxygen in the blood caused by insufficient oxygen in the inspired air, most commonly experienced at high altitude.

• Caused by low partial pressure of O2 at altitude
• Symptoms include euphoria, poor judgment, cyanosis
• Time of useful consciousness decreases with altitude

Memory trick: HHHS: Hypoxic, Hypemic, Histotoxic, Stagnant

A hazardous attitude in which a pilot believes accidents happen to others and that they personally are immune to risk, often leading to inadequate preparation or risk assessment.

• Antidote: 'It could happen to me'
• Leads pilots to skip precautions like currency checks or equipment
• One of five classic ADM hazardous attitudes

Memory trick: It CAN happen to me — don't believe you're bulletproof

Class A airspace extends from 18,000 feet MSL up to FL600 over the continental U.S. and requires all operations to be conducted under IFR.

• No VFR flight is permitted in Class A airspace
• Pilot must hold an instrument rating and file an IFR flight plan
• Aircraft must be equipped for IFR flight, including a transponder

Memory trick: 'A' stands for 'Always IFR' above 18,000 feet

A vestibular illusion caused by moving the head out of the plane of a prolonged turn, producing a false and often overwhelming sensation of rotation or tumbling on a different axis.

• Triggered by head movement during a sustained turn
• Considered one of the most dangerous spatial disorientation illusions
• Prevention: avoid abrupt head movements during turns, especially in IMC

Memory trick: Tilt your head in a turn, feel the world spin off-axis

The PROB30 (or PROB40) group in a TAF indicates the percent probability that the specified weather conditions will occur during the given time period, expressed as day/hour to day/hour in UTC.

• PROB30/PROB40 = 30%/40% probability of occurrence
• Time format is DDHH/DDHH in UTC
• Used mainly for thunderstorms or low IFR conditions

Memory trick: PROB30 = Probably 30%, not for sure

Comparing the environmental (actual) lapse rate to the dry adiabatic lapse rate (3°C/1,000 ft) determines atmospheric stability: a lower environmental rate indicates stability, a higher one indicates instability.

• Environmental lapse rate = temperature difference divided by altitude difference (in thousands of feet)
• Dry adiabatic lapse rate is a constant 3°C per 1,000 feet
• If environmental rate < adiabatic rate, atmosphere is stable; if greater, unstable

Memory trick: Slower cooling with height than 3°C/1,000ft means the air 'holds itself down' — stable

The mature stage of a thunderstorm is characterized by simultaneous strong updrafts and downdrafts, heavy precipitation, lightning, and gusty outflow winds, making it the most hazardous phase for aviation.

• Cumulus stage: updrafts only, no precipitation
• Mature stage: updrafts + downdrafts, heavy rain, lightning, gust front
• Dissipating stage: downdrafts dominate, precipitation decreases
• Gust front from mature stage can cause severe low-level wind shear

Memory trick: Cumulus builds, Mature roars, Dissipating fades

A hazardous attitude characterized by resentment of rules and regulations, often expressed as 'don't tell me' thinking.

• Antidote: 'Follow the rules, they are usually right'
• One of five hazardous attitudes in ADM
• Can lead to skipping checklists or procedures

Memory trick: AIM RA: Anti-authority, Impulsivity, Macho, Resignation, Anti... (5 attitudes)

Freezing rain forms when precipitation falls as liquid through a warm layer aloft, then becomes supercooled while passing through a shallow subfreezing layer near the surface, freezing on contact with cold surfaces.

• Commonly associated with warm fronts overrunning cold air
• Requires a temperature inversion with warm air above freezing, cold air below
• Considered one of the most hazardous icing conditions for aircraft

Memory trick: Warm rain falls, cold ground waits — instant ice on contact

METAR reports prevailing visibility in statute miles first, followed by runway visual range (RVR) in feet for specific runways when reported.

• RVR format: R(runway)/(value)FT
• RVR is used mainly for low-visibility operations
• Prevailing visibility always precedes RVR in the METAR sequence

Memory trick: Visibility comes first, then Runway details — 'See it, then land on it'

An AIRMET (Airmen's Meteorological Information) advisory for moderate icing conditions and forecast freezing levels, significant to light aircraft and VFR operations but less severe than SIGMET criteria.

• AIRMET Sierra = IFR conditions and mountain obscuration
• AIRMET Tango = turbulence, strong surface winds, low-level wind shear
• AIRMET Zulu = moderate icing and freezing level heights
• SIGMETs cover more severe or extreme hazards affecting all aircraft

Memory trick: Sierra=Sky(IFR), Tango=Turbulence, Zulu=iced (freeZing)

The ceiling is the height above ground of the lowest layer of clouds reported as broken or overcast, or the vertical visibility into an obscuring phenomenon.

• Scattered (SCT) layers never count as a ceiling
• Broken (BKN) or overcast (OVC) layers define the ceiling
• Use the lowest BKN/OVC layer when multiple layers are reported

Memory trick: 'Scattered Skies Show No Ceiling' — only Broken/Overcast count.

Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature; it reflects the air density affecting engine, propeller, and wing performance.

• High temperature increases density altitude
• High density altitude decreases air density
• Affects takeoff, climb, and landing performance

Memory trick: Hot and high means air is thin.

A SIGMET warns of non-convective hazards significant to all aircraft (severe icing/turbulence, dust storms, volcanic ash), while a Convective SIGMET specifically warns of severe thunderstorm-related hazards like tornadoes, hail 3/4 inch or greater, or 50-knot surface winds.

• SIGMET (WS): icing, turbulence, dust/sandstorms, volcanic ash
• Convective SIGMET (WST): tornadoes, lines of storms, hail ≥3/4 inch, gusts ≥50 kt
• Both are significant to all aircraft, unlike AIRMETs (light aircraft focus)

Memory trick: SIGMET = Severe stuff for everyone; Convective SIGMET = Storms specifically

In a Terminal Aerodrome Forecast, 'FM' followed by a time indicates a rapid, significant change in prevailing conditions that begins at that time and completely replaces the previous forecast group.

• FM = From, marks abrupt permanent-type change
• BECMG = Becoming, gradual change over a time range
• TEMPO = Temporary, fluctuations lasting less than an hour at a time
• PROB30/40 = probability of thunderstorms or other conditions

Memory trick: FM = Fast/Full change; BECMG = Bit-by-bit; TEMPO = Temporary blip

When a tower operates only part-time, the surrounding Class D airspace becomes Class E or G when the tower is closed, and pilots follow standard nontowered airport procedures.

• Chart Supplement lists tower operating hours
• CTAF frequency is used for self-announcements when tower is closed
• Airspace class effectively changes based on tower operating status

Memory trick: Tower asleep, airspace shrinks to E or G

At nontowered airports, pilots use the Common Traffic Advisory Frequency to broadcast position, intentions, and airport name so as to alert other aircraft in the area.

• CTAF frequency is published in the Chart Supplement
• Typical calls include airport name, position, altitude, and intentions
• Reduces risk of midair collision in the absence of ATC separation

Memory trick: 'Say who, where, and what you'll do on CTAF'

Cloud cover in METARs is reported as coverage abbreviation (e.g., FEW, SCT, BKN, OVC) followed by a three-digit height code representing hundreds of feet above ground level.

• OVC = overcast (7/8 to 8/8 sky coverage)
• Height code x 100 = feet AGL
• BKN = broken (5/8 to 7/8), SCT = scattered (3/8 to 4/8), FEW = few (1/8 to 2/8)

Memory trick: Three digits, times 100, always AGL

A method of increasing engine power at altitude by using exhaust gas energy to drive a turbine that compresses intake air, maintaining higher manifold pressure than ambient conditions would otherwise allow.

• Turbocharger is driven by exhaust gases; supercharger is driven mechanically by the engine
• Allows engines to maintain sea-level power to higher altitudes ('critical altitude')
• Does not by itself prevent carburetor icing

Memory trick: Turbo turns exhaust into extra oomph.

Fog that forms over land on clear, calm nights as the ground cools rapidly, cooling the adjacent moist air to its dew point.

• Requires clear skies for radiational cooling
• Needs light or calm wind (too much wind mixes air and prevents fog)
• Typically dissipates after sunrise as the ground warms
• Usually shallow and confined to low-lying areas

Memory trick: Clear + Calm + Cool = Radiation fog at dawn

Mountain wave turbulence forms when strong winds blow perpendicular to a mountain ridge in a stable atmosphere, creating oscillating airflow, severe turbulence, and rotor clouds on the lee side.

• Requires strong wind (typically 25+ kt) roughly perpendicular to the ridge
• Occurs in stable air, unlike convective turbulence
• Can produce severe turbulence, downdrafts, and rotor clouds far downwind

Memory trick: Stable air + strong wind over a ridge = wave and rotor rough ride

High density altitude (thin, less dense air) reduces engine power, propeller thrust, and lift, degrading overall aircraft performance.

• High density altitude = longer takeoff/landing rolls
• Reduced climb rate and lower service ceiling
• Caused by high elevation, high temperature, high humidity, low pressure

Memory trick: Thin air = poor air (performance)

A form of hypoxia caused by a reduction in the blood's ability to carry oxygen, commonly due to carbon monoxide binding to hemoglobin far more strongly than oxygen.

• CO binds hemoglobin ~200x more readily than oxygen
• Symptoms: headache, confusion, drowsiness
• Cabin heat exchangers cracked near exhaust are a common source

Memory trick: CO steals hemoglobin's seat from oxygen

A row of four lights beside the runway providing visual glidepath guidance; the combination of red and white lights indicates position relative to the correct glidepath.

• All white = too high
• Two white/two red = on glidepath
• One white/three red = slightly low
• All red = significantly low, dangerous

Memory trick: Two-and-two, right on cue

A warm front is preceded by gradually lowering ceilings, continuous precipitation, and reduced visibility, followed by gradual clearing and rising temperatures after passage.

• Cirrus clouds often precede a warm front by hundreds of miles
• Precipitation is typically steady, not showery
• Wind shifts and temperatures rise gradually after passage

Memory trick: Warm fronts creep in slow, then clear up nice and slow

Special use airspace containing unusual, often invisible hazards such as artillery firing; entry requires permission from the controlling agency when active.

• Depicted with blue hatched lines and an 'R' designator on sectional charts
• Times of activity often listed in the chart margin or obtained from Flight Service
• Penetration without clearance while active can be hazardous and illegal

Memory trick: Restricted means ask first, boom later

When radio communication is lost, control towers use light gun signals to communicate with aircraft; a steady red light in flight means give way and continue circling.

• Steady green in flight = cleared to land
• Flashing green in flight = return for landing (cleared to enter pattern)
• Steady red in flight = give way, continue circling
• Flashing red in flight = airport unsafe, do not land

Memory trick: Steady red, stay ahead—circle instead

The boundary where cold air displaces warm air; associated with a narrow band of often intense weather followed by rapid clearing and a temperature drop.

• Steeper frontal slope than warm fronts, producing more violent weather
• Wind shifts abruptly, often becoming gusty from the northwest (in Northern Hemisphere)
• Temperature and dew point drop noticeably after passage
• Can produce cumulonimbus clouds and thunderstorms along the front

Memory trick: Cold front = quick and violent, then clear and cold

Special use airspace within which flight is prohibited at all times for security or other reasons, depicted on charts with a 'P' designation.

• Established over sensitive locations like the White House
• No flight permitted without specific FAA authorization
• Depicted on sectional charts with blue hash marks and a P-number

Memory trick: 'P' means 'Positively No Entry'