FAA Commercial Pilot Airplane (CAX) flashcards

Load factor in a coordinated turn is a function of bank angle only, independent of altitude, while true airspeed increases with altitude for a constant indicated airspeed due to decreasing air density.

• Load factor = 1/cos(bank), altitude-independent
• TAS increases with altitude at constant IAS
• Higher TAS at altitude increases turn radius
• Same IAS produces same indicated stall margin regardless of altitude

Memory trick: Thin air, same G, but speed climbs high — TAS grows as density flies by!

A component in continuous-flow fuel injection that receives metered fuel and splits it evenly to injector lines for each cylinder.

• Located centrally, resembling a spider with multiple lines
• Also contains a valve that stops fuel flow at idle cutoff
• Ensures even fuel distribution across cylinders

Memory trick: Spider splits the fuel to every leg (cylinder).

When an aircraft sits on a specific radial, selecting the reciprocal course on the OBS while the aircraft is stationary still centers the needle, but the TO/FROM flag flips accordingly.

• A centered CDI with FROM indicates the aircraft is on the selected radial outbound
• Selecting the reciprocal (180° opposite) course keeps the needle centered but flips FROM to TO
• TO/FROM indicates whether the selected course leads to or away from the station, not aircraft heading

Memory trick: Same radial, opposite course, flag flips

An illusion in which a pilot mistakes a sloping line of clouds, terrain, or lights for the true horizon, leading to an incorrect aircraft attitude.

• Common at night over coastlines, sloping cloud decks, or featureless terrain
• Can cause an unrecognized bank or climb/descent
• Combat by cross-checking flight instruments, especially the attitude indicator

Memory trick: Trust the gauges, not the glow.

A pressurization safety system that alerts the pilot when cabin altitude exceeds a preset limit, indicating loss of pressurization.

• Triggers oxygen mask use and emergency descent procedures
• Cabin altitude, not aircraft altitude, is the sensed parameter
• Distinct from an overpressurization (safety valve) failure

Memory trick: Horn blares when the cabin climbs too high, not the plane.

Private carriage (e.g., corporate flight departments transporting their own employees, not holding out to the public) does not require a Part 119 operating certificate, unlike common carriage for hire to the public.

• Common carriage involves holding out air transportation services to the general public for compensation.
• Private carriage is typically incidental to a company's primary business and not offered publicly.
• Corporate flight departments can operate under Part 91 without a Part 119 certificate if carriage remains private.

Memory trick: "Fly your own crew, private and true — no certificate due."

Maneuvering speed is the airspeed at which the airplane will stall exactly at the positive limit load factor, shown on the V-n diagram as the intersection of the CLmax stall curve and the limit load factor line.

• Below Va: airplane stalls before reaching limit load factor
• Above Va: airplane can exceed limit load factor before stalling
• Va decreases with decreasing weight

Memory trick: Where the stall curve meets the limit line — that's Va, your safety corner.

The absolute structural speed limit that must never be exceeded, marked by the red radial line on the airspeed indicator.

• Exceeding Vne risks flutter and structural failure, unrelated to stall or AOA.
• Vne is a fixed structural limit regardless of load factor.
• Va (maneuvering speed) protects against structural damage from abrupt maneuvers, while Vne protects against high-speed structural failure.

Memory trick: Red line means structure, not stall — never cross it.

Stall speed changes with the square root of the ratio of new weight to original weight, since lift required to sustain flight is proportional to weight.

• Formula: Vs2 = Vs1 × √(W2/W1)
• Lighter weight = lower stall speed
• Relationship is square-root, not linear

Memory trick: Lighter plane, lazier stall — square root of the scale.

A visual illusion in which a stationary light stared at in darkness appears to move.

• Caused by staring at a fixed point of light for several seconds in the dark
• Can be mistaken for another aircraft's movement
• Prevented by shifting the eyes/scanning rather than staring

Memory trick: Stare at a star, it starts to move — Autokinesis

In a vertical pull-up maneuver, load factor is calculated as n = 1 + V²/(gR), where V is velocity, g is gravitational acceleration, and R is the radius of the pull-up arc.

• Formula: n = 1 + V²/(gR)
• Load factor increases with velocity squared
• Load factor decreases as pull-up radius increases (gentler arc)

Memory trick: Velocity squared divides by gravity times radius, plus one for gravity's prize.

As altitude increases at a constant indicated airspeed, true airspeed rises due to lower air density, which increases turn radius and decreases rate of turn for a given bank angle.

• TAS increases with altitude for constant IAS
• Turn radius ∝ V², so it grows quickly with TAS
• Rate of turn ∝ 1/V, so it decreases as TAS rises
• Pilots must bank steeper at altitude to maintain the same turn radius/rate

Memory trick: Higher you fly, wider you turn, slower you spin — TAS makes the difference within!

The altitude at which an airplane's maximum rate of climb decreases to 100 feet per minute.

• Absolute ceiling = altitude where climb rate is 0 fpm.
• Service ceiling is a practical operational limit above which climb performance is minimal.
• Both ceilings decrease with weight increase and temperature increase.

Memory trick: Service stops at 1-0-0, Absolute stops at zero.

The difference between cabin pressure and outside ambient pressure at altitude, limited structurally to protect the fuselage; calculated in psi from inHg using ~0.491 psi/inHg.

• Diff pressure = cabin pressure − ambient pressure
• Convert inHg to psi using ~0.491 psi per inHg
• Exceeding max differential risks structural damage

Memory trick: Subtract, then convert: inHg difference times 0.491 gives your psi.

The TO/FROM flag on a VOR indicator shows whether the selected course, if flown, would take the aircraft toward or away from the station, independent of aircraft heading.

• FROM appears when tracking outbound on the selected radial
• TO appears when tracking inbound toward the station on the selected course
• TO/FROM is based on position relative to the station, not the aircraft's heading

Memory trick: Outbound on your radial = 'FROM' the flag is calling.

Major repairs and alterations must be documented on FAA Form 337 in duplicate, with one copy retained in aircraft records and one sent to the FAA within 48 hours.

• Required for major repairs/alterations per Part 43 Appendix B
• Completed in duplicate
• One copy forwarded to FAA within 48 hours

Memory trick: '337 in duplicate, done in 48' for major work.

14 CFR 119.1(e)(2) exempts nonstop sightseeing flights for compensation, beginning/ending at the same airport within 25 statute miles, from Part 119 certificate requirements.

• Flight must be nonstop and return to the same airport.
• Must remain within a 25-statute-mile radius of the departure airport.
• Other Part 119.1(e) exceptions include flight instruction, ferry flights, and certain government flights.

Memory trick: "Twenty-five miles, round and round, no Part 119 certificate found."

A certificated pilot may perform preventive maintenance on an aircraft they own or operate, provided it is not used in air carrier service, with proper logbook entries.

• Applies to aircraft owned or operated by the pilot
• Not permitted on air-carrier-operated aircraft
• Preventive maintenance tasks listed in Part 43 Appendix A

Memory trick: 'My plane, my wire' — owners may do simple preventive tasks.

The maximum altitude at which a turbocharger can still maintain its rated manifold pressure; above this altitude, manifold pressure drops with further climb.

• Wastegate fully closed at critical altitude
• Above it, MP falls roughly 1 inHg per 1,000 ft (engine dependent)
• Defines the turbocharger's performance ceiling

Memory trick: Past the critical peak, pressure leaks — 1 inch per thousand feet.

A manifold pressure oscillation in turbocharged engines caused by a feedback loop between exhaust flow, turbo speed, and manifold pressure.

• Common with older fixed or manually controlled wastegates
• Manifests as MP rising and falling without throttle movement
• Modern automatic wastegate controllers largely eliminate it

Memory trick: Boots keep bouncing the boost.

Cabin rate of climb equals the change in cabin altitude divided by the time elapsed, similar to aircraft vertical speed calculations.

• Formula: (final cabin altitude − initial cabin altitude) ÷ time in minutes
• Normal comfortable cabin climb rates are typically 300-500 fpm
• Rapid or uncommanded high rates indicate a pressurization malfunction

Memory trick: Change in altitude over time equals rate.

Increasing an airplane's gross weight increases induced drag at a given airspeed and altitude, requiring more power and fuel flow, which reduces range for a fixed fuel load.

• Heavier weight requires higher AOA to generate needed lift, increasing induced drag
• More power/fuel flow is needed to maintain cruise speed and altitude at higher weight
• Range and endurance decrease as gross weight increases for the same fuel quantity

Memory trick: Heavier plane, hungrier engine

A device that stores oil under pressure so a feathered propeller can be moved out of feather and the engine restarted in flight.

• Found on multiengine feathering propeller systems
• Provides initial oil charge before engine-driven pump resumes
• Essential because a stopped engine's oil pump can't feather/unfeather alone

Memory trick: Stored oil punch gets a feathered blade back to work.

The airspeed that produces the maximum lift-to-drag ratio, resulting in the greatest gliding distance for a given altitude loss.

• Best glide speed ≠ minimum sink speed
• Occurs at minimum total drag airspeed
• Published for each aircraft in the POH
• Changes with weight and configuration

Memory trick: Max L/D means max glide, ride the drag curve's low point!

Autorotation is the self-sustaining rolling and yawing motion in a spin caused by the descending wing having a higher angle of attack and being more deeply stalled than the rising wing.

• Descending wing: higher AOA, more stalled, less lift, more drag
• Rising wing: lower AOA, less stalled, more lift, less drag
• Asymmetric lift/drag drives continued rotation
• Proper spin recovery breaks the stall on the descending wing

Memory trick: Down wing stalls deep, keeps the spin's beat!

A fuel injection component that meters fuel flow based on engine airflow demand and the pilot's mixture setting to maintain the correct fuel-air ratio.

• Airflow is sensed via throttle position/engine speed
• Mixture control allows leaning at altitude
• Provides more precise fuel metering than a carburetor

Memory trick: Airflow tells how much, mixture tells how rich.

A valve that controls the volume of exhaust gas routed to the turbocharger's turbine, thereby regulating manifold pressure (boost).

• Diverts excess exhaust overboard
• Controls turbine/compressor speed
• Can be fixed, manual, or automatic controller-operated

Memory trick: The wastegate wastes exhaust to keep boost in check.

A hazardous attitude in which a pilot takes unnecessary risks to prove superiority or capability to themselves or others.

• Antidote: 'Taking chances is foolish'
• Often triggered by having an audience or passenger
• Can affect pilots of any experience level or gender

Memory trick: Showing off in gusty winds shows a macho mind.

A cockpit warning light (often red) that illuminates when a landing gear leg is not confirmed down and locked, distinct from the green safe indication.

• Green lights confirm gear down and locked
• Red/amber indicates unsafe or in-transit gear
• Pilots should follow emergency extension checklists if unsafe indication persists

Memory trick: Green means go-down-safe, red means recheck.

Parasite drag increases with the square of airspeed; induced drag decreases with the square of airspeed. They are equal at L/D max, the point of minimum total drag.

• Induced drag dominates at low speed/high AOA
• Parasite drag dominates at high speed
• Total drag is minimum where the two curves cross (L/D max)

Memory trick: Slow and draggy from lift (induced), fast and draggy from friction (parasite).

A cabin pressurization component that controls the rate air leaves the cabin, setting cabin pressure differential and cabin altitude.

• Works with inflow (bleed) air to balance cabin pressure
• Usually electronically or pneumatically controlled
• Malfunction can cause rapid decompression or overpressurization

Memory trick: Air comes in from the engine, leaves through the outflow door.

Va is published as calibrated airspeed and provides the same stall-before-overstress protection at any altitude, even though the corresponding true airspeed increases with altitude.

• Va is defined in CAS, not TAS
• TAS for a given CAS increases with altitude
• Pilots should fly the published CAS value for turbulence penetration at any altitude

Memory trick: CAS stays the boss, no matter how high you toss.

For IFR flights requiring an alternate, the aircraft must carry enough fuel to fly to the destination, then to the alternate airport, then for 45 minutes at normal cruising speed.

• Applies when an alternate is required under 91.169
• Reserve is 45 minutes at normal cruise, same time as night VFR but a different rule
• If no alternate is required, only destination fuel plus 45-minute reserve applies

Memory trick: 'Destination, Diversion, Forty-five' — the IFR fuel triad.

For constant lift (weight) in level flight, angle of attack and airspeed are inversely related: as speed increases, less angle of attack is needed to generate the same lift.

• Lift = CL x ½ρV² x S
• In level flight, lift must equal weight
• Higher speed → lower required CL → lower angle of attack

Memory trick: Faster wing, lazier angle — speed and AOA trade places to hold lift steady.

A hazardous attitude marked by resentment of rules and authority, expressed as 'Don't tell me.'

• Antidote thought: 'Follow the rules, they are usually right.'
• One of five hazardous attitudes taught in ADM
• Can lead pilots to disregard checklists, regulations, or ATC instructions

Memory trick: Anti-authority says 'Don't tell me!'

Groundspeed is the actual speed of the aircraft over the ground, computed as distance flown divided by time elapsed, converted to a per-hour rate.

• GS (kt) = distance (NM) / time (hr)
• Convert minutes to hours by dividing by 60
• Groundspeed differs from true airspeed due to wind

Memory trick: D = S x T, so S = D / T — 'Dirt Sticks to Tires' reminds the order.

Under day VFR, a pilot must carry enough fuel to reach the first point of intended landing plus fly 30 minutes at normal cruising speed thereafter.

• Day VFR reserve = 30 minutes at cruise burn rate
• Night VFR reserve = 45 minutes
• Reserve is calculated using normal cruise fuel consumption, not economy cruise

Memory trick: Day = 3 (0 minutes), Night = 4 (5 minutes) — fuel reserves grow after dark.

A dedicated mechanical safety valve that vents excess induction manifold pressure to prevent engine overboost if the wastegate fails.

• Acts as a backup safeguard independent of wastegate operation
• Opens automatically at a preset maximum manifold pressure
• Distinct from the normal automatic density/absolute pressure controller

Memory trick: Pop-off valve pops before the engine drops.

Airplanes with higher wing loading (less wing area per pound of weight) experience smaller load factor changes from a given gust than lower wing-loading airplanes, resulting in a smoother ride.

• Gust lift change is proportional to wing area
• Higher wing loading = smaller AOA/lift change per gust
• Explains why heavily wing-loaded aircraft (e.g., jets) ride turbulence more smoothly than light, large-winged aircraft

Memory trick: Small wings, small bumps — high wing loading shrugs off gusts.

When RPM drops below the selected value, the governor increases oil pressure to the hub, moving blades to a lower pitch angle to restore RPM.

• Flyweights move in during underspeed
• Oil pressure increases to hub
• Blades move to fine (low) pitch, RPM rises

Memory trick: Underspeed = under pitch: low RPM gets low (fine) pitch to speed back up.

A quick estimation method stating that true airspeed increases approximately 2% above calibrated/indicated airspeed for every 1,000 feet of altitude gained under standard conditions.

• 2% increase per 1,000 feet is an approximation, not exact
• Actual TAS also depends on non-standard temperature deviations
• More precise TAS is found using an E6B flight computer with pressure altitude and temperature

Memory trick: 'Two percent per grand' — TAS climbs 2% for every 1,000 feet up.

A heat exchanger that cools compressed induction air from the turbocharger before it reaches the cylinders, increasing density and reducing detonation risk.

• Located between compressor discharge and intake manifold
• Increases air density for more power/less detonation risk
• Common on turbocharged high-performance engines

Memory trick: Hot squeezed air needs a cool-down before the burn.

A vestibular illusion in which linear acceleration is misinterpreted as pitching up, and deceleration as pitching down.

• Caused by the inner ear misreading acceleration forces
• Common during rapid takeoff acceleration or go-around power application
• Can lead to inappropriate nose-down control input if not cross-checking instruments

Memory trick: Speed up, feel like you're pitching up — somatogravic

A risk management framework that organizes flight-related risk factors into five categories: Plan, Plane, Pilot, Passengers, and Programming, reviewed at key decision points during a flight.

• Plan = route, weather, fuel requirements
• Plane = airworthiness, equipment, performance
• Pilot = fitness, experience, currency; Passengers = needs/expectations; Programming = automation/avionics setup

Memory trick: Plan, Plane, Pilot, Passengers, Programming — the 5 P's keep you flying safe.

VOR equipment used for IFR navigation must be operationally checked within the preceding 30 days, with results logged.

• 30-day interval
• Acceptable methods: VOT, ground/airborne checkpoints, dual VOR comparison
• Must log date, place, error, and signature

Memory trick: 'VOR every thirty' keeps your compass true.

A visual illusion during night approach over dark, featureless terrain causing pilots to believe they are higher than actual altitude, leading to a dangerously low approach.

• Occurs when runway lights are the only visual reference at night
• Leads to flying below the correct glidepath
• Mitigated by using VASI/PAPI and instrument references

Memory trick: No lights around, you sink to the ground

A condition where fuel vaporizes in injection lines due to engine heat soak, disrupting fuel flow and causing hard hot starts.

• More common in fuel injection than carburetion
• Caused by heat soak after shutdown
• Mitigated by proper hot-start procedures (e.g., mixture/throttle technique)

Memory trick: Hot lines boil the fuel — vapor lock locks out the start.

The limit load factor is the maximum load an airplane can sustain without permanent deformation; the ultimate load factor (limit x 1.5 safety factor) is the point at which structural failure is expected.

• Ultimate load factor = limit load factor x 1.5
• Between limit and ultimate: possible permanent deformation, not failure
• Certification standards require this built-in safety margin

Memory trick: Limit bends it, ultimate (1.5x) breaks it.

Power-on stall speed is typically lower than power-off stall speed because propeller slipstream increases airflow energy over the wing and a vertical thrust component helps support the airplane, delaying the stall.

• Slipstream increases effective airflow speed over the wing root area.
• A component of thrust acts to help support weight at high pitch attitudes.
• This is why power-on stalls occur at a lower indicated airspeed than power-off stalls.

Memory trick: Power blows extra air over the wing, delaying the stall to a slower speed.

A mechanical pin/lock on the landing gear control lever that must be released before the lever can be moved up, backing up the squat switch against inadvertent ground retraction.

• Mechanical backup to the electrical squat switch
• Must be manually released to select gear up
• Prevents accidental gear retraction while airplane is on the ground

Memory trick: Pin locks the lever so ground crews can't accidentally fold the legs.

The skill of prioritizing and distributing flight deck tasks so that critical duties such as aircraft control and communication are not neglected during periods of high workload.

• Follow the priority order: aviate, navigate, communicate
• Avoid task fixation on secondary tasks like avionics programming during critical phases
• Part of Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM) principles

Memory trick: Aviate first, navigate second, communicate third — never forget the order.

A runup procedure of moving the prop control through its range to circulate warm oil and purge trapped air from the governor/hub for reliable pitch response.

• Performed before takeoff along with other engine checks
• Helps ensure smooth, responsive governor operation
• Distinct from a feathering check, which is separate where applicable

Memory trick: Cycle it warm, purge the air, keep the pitch fair.

A backup method, typically a mechanical release or hand pump, that allows the landing gear to free-fall and lock down if the primary hydraulic system fails.

• Mechanical release disconnects hydraulic lock
• Gravity and airflow help gear extend
• Some systems use a hand pump to build backup pressure

Memory trick: When hydraulics quit, gravity does the work.

A valve that opens to release excess pressure caused by thermal expansion of fluid trapped in a closed hydraulic line, protecting components from damage.

• Protects trapped fluid lines from heat-induced pressure buildup
• Distinct from sequence and priority valves
• Common wherever fluid can be isolated in a closed line, e.g., locked gear actuators

Memory trick: Trapped fluid heats up and needs a release valve, not a sequencer.

A normally aspirated engine's full-throttle manifold pressure drops roughly 1 inHg per 1,000 feet of altitude gain because it cannot compress air above ambient pressure.

• No compressor to maintain sea-level MP at altitude
• Approx. 1 inHg loss per 1,000 ft
• Contrasts with turbocharged engines, which hold MP up to critical altitude

Memory trick: Every 1,000 feet up costs about 1 inch of manifold pressure.

A review of operating rules and a flight of at least 1 hour required every 24 calendar months under 14 CFR 61.56 to act as PIC.

• Due every 24 calendar months, counted from the end of the month completed.
• Must be given by an authorized instructor unless substituted by WINGS completion.
• Not required if the pilot has passed a checkride or proficiency check within the period.

Memory trick: "24 months, WINGS or review, keeps your PIC privileges true."

In a counterweight-type propeller, loss of governor oil pressure allows counterweights and spring force to drive blades toward high pitch, decreasing RPM.

• Oil pressure = low pitch (fine)
• Counterweights/spring = high pitch (coarse)
• Oil loss results in reduced RPM, not overspeed

Memory trick: No oil, no fine pitch — counterweights coarsen the blades and calm the RPM.

A night-vision scanning technique in which a pilot looks slightly to the side of an object rather than directly at it to use the more light-sensitive rod cells in peripheral vision.

• Rods dominate peripheral vision and are more sensitive in low light
• Cones dominate central vision and require more light, causing a night blind spot when staring directly ahead
• Full dark adaptation takes approximately 30 minutes

Memory trick: Look beside it, not at it, to see it at night.

The effective use of all available resources by a single pilot to manage workload, tasks, and decision-making safely.

• Prioritization follows 'Aviate, Navigate, Communicate'
• Encourages task shedding of non-critical duties during high workload
• Includes use of automation, checklists, and ATC as resources

Memory trick: Aviate, Navigate, Communicate — fly first, talk later

Airplanes flown IFR in controlled airspace must have their static pressure system, altimeter, and altitude reporting equipment tested within the preceding 24 calendar months.

• Applies only to IFR flight in controlled airspace
• 24 calendar month interval
• Test must follow Part 43 Appendix E procedures

Memory trick: '24 for Altimeters and ATC gear' — both systems share the same 2-year clock.