FAA Commercial Pilot Airplane (CAX) flashcards

An FAA authorization under 14 CFR 21.197 allowing an aircraft that does not meet airworthiness requirements to be flown under specified safe conditions, such as to a repair facility.

• Issued under 14 CFR 21.197
• Allows flight despite known unairworthy condition
• Often used to ferry aircraft for repair, modification, or storage

Memory trick: 'Not airworthy? Get a ferry permit first.'

A door or valve that allows unfiltered, often warmer, air to enter the induction system if the normal filtered air path becomes blocked.

• Bypasses a blocked or iced primary air filter
• Air is typically warmer and unfiltered
• Common on both fuel-injected and carbureted high-performance engines

Memory trick: Blocked filter? Open the alternate door for backup breath.

Normal, everyday tiredness resulting from a busy or sleep-restricted day that is relieved by a sufficient period of sleep or rest.

• Resolves with one good night's sleep
• Contrast with chronic fatigue, which accumulates over days and is not easily relieved
• Impairs judgment, reaction time, and vigilance similarly to alcohol impairment

Memory trick: One bad night, one good sleep fixes acute fatigue.

A line on a chart connecting points of equal magnetic variation, used to determine the correction needed when converting true course to magnetic course.

• Labeled with the variation value and direction, e.g., '10°W'
• The agonic line specifically marks zero variation
• Deviation, in contrast, is unique to each aircraft's compass and instruments

Memory trick: Isogonic = equal variation, not zero

Aspect ratio is the ratio of wingspan to average chord; higher aspect ratio wings produce less induced drag for a given lift because wingtip vortex effects are proportionally smaller.

• High AR = long, narrow wings = low induced drag
• Low AR = short, wide wings = high induced drag
• Gliders favor high AR for efficiency

Memory trick: Long and lean wings leak less drag at the tips.

ELT batteries must be replaced after 1 cumulative hour of use or 50% of useful life, whichever occurs first.

• 1 hour cumulative use limit
• 50% useful life limit
• New expiration date must be marked on the ELT

Memory trick: 'One hour, half life' — 1 hour used or half the battery's life, whichever comes first.

Once critical altitude is exceeded, the turbocharger can no longer maintain rated manifold pressure, and MP decreases roughly 1 inHg per 1,000 feet like a normally aspirated engine.

• Critical altitude = highest altitude for rated MP with wastegate closed
• Above it, further climb causes MP loss similar to normally aspirated engines
• Pilots should expect performance decay above critical altitude

Memory trick: Past the peak, lose an inch per thousand feet.

Minimum sink speed minimizes descent rate for maximum time aloft, while best glide speed (L/D max) maximizes glide distance; minimum sink speed is slower than best glide speed.

• Best glide speed = L/D max, maximizes distance covered.
• Minimum sink speed is slower, maximizes time aloft (endurance).
• Choose minimum sink when time, not distance, is the priority (e.g., circling to lose altitude near a field).

Memory trick: Slow for time, L/D max for distance.

High density altitude reduces air density, requiring higher true airspeed to achieve the same indicated airspeed for lift-off, while simultaneously reducing engine power and propeller efficiency, both lengthening takeoff distance.

• IAS for lift-off stays roughly constant
• TAS needed increases with density altitude
• Engine power and prop efficiency both decrease in thin air

Memory trick: Hot and high, thrust says goodbye, TAS climbs high.

Constant-speed propellers change blade angle to maintain selected RPM: flat/fine pitch for high RPM, coarse pitch for low RPM.

• Fine pitch = low blade angle = high RPM (takeoff/climb)
• Coarse pitch = high blade angle = low RPM (cruise)
• Governor automatically adjusts blade angle to hold selected RPM

Memory trick: Flat and fast, coarse and calm.

Best power mixture is set slightly rich of peak EGT for maximum power; best economy mixture is set at or slightly lean of peak EGT for maximum fuel efficiency.

• Best power ≈ rich of peak EGT
• Best economy ≈ at or lean of peak EGT
• Fuel injection systems allow more precise mixture control than carburetors

Memory trick: Rich for power, lean for miles — peak splits the two goals.

RAIM is a GPS receiver function that uses redundant satellite signals to detect and, in some units, exclude a faulty satellite, ensuring position integrity for IFR navigation.

• Requires at least 5 satellites for fault detection
• RAIM prediction should be checked before an IFR GPS flight
• A RAIM outage may require an alternate navigation method or delayed departure

Memory trick: RAIM = 'Reliable Aircraft Integrity Monitor' — checks satellites, not autopilot.

Under 14 CFR 91.409(a)(1), most aircraft must have an annual inspection within the preceding 12 calendar months to remain airworthy.

• Calendar month counting runs to the last day of the month.
• Applies to all aircraft except those inspected under an approved progressive or other program.
• Failure to complete on time grounds the aircraft until inspected.

Memory trick: "Inspect by month's end, not the exact day, my friend."

Fuel injection meters fuel directly into the cylinders or intake ports, avoiding the carburetor's venturi cooling effect and reducing susceptibility to induction icing.

• No venturi vaporization cooling
• Less prone to carburetor icing
• Still uses fuel pumps and mixture control

Memory trick: No venturi, no chill — injection skips the icing thrill.

A safety valve that opens to let outside air into the cabin whenever cabin pressure drops below outside pressure, preventing structural damage.

• Protects against inward-collapsing loads on the fuselage
• Activates typically during rapid descents
• Works opposite to the positive pressure relief valve

Memory trick: Negative valve lets air back in.

The tendency to notice, focus on, and remember information that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or desires while disregarding contradictory evidence.

• Can cause pilots to underweight hazardous weather or mechanical clues
• Often paired with 'wishful thinking' about flight conditions
• Countered by deliberately seeking disconfirming information before deciding

Memory trick: Hearing only what you want to hear is confirmation bias.

Rate of turn in degrees per second is found using rate = (1,091 × tan(bank))/TAS, showing that rate increases with steeper bank and decreases with higher airspeed.

• Standard rate turn = 3°/second (360° in 2 minutes)
• Higher TAS requires steeper bank for same rate
• Formula constant 1,091 derives from turn geometry
• Rate and radius are inversely related at constant bank

Memory trick: Faster you fly, slower you turn — steeper bank helps you churn!

Wear or failure of the turbocharger's center bearing and oil seals allows engine oil to leak into the exhaust and induction system, producing blue smoke and high oil consumption despite normal manifold pressure.

• Symptom: blue smoke plus high oil consumption
• Manifold pressure often remains normal
• Different from wastegate/pop-off failures, which cause pressure anomalies

Memory trick: Blue smoke with normal MP means oil is sneaking past worn turbo seals.

A flyweight-actuated device that meters engine oil pressure to the propeller hub to automatically change blade pitch and hold a selected RPM.

• Flyweights sense RPM changes
• Oil pressure changes blade angle
• Maintains selected RPM despite airspeed/power changes

Memory trick: Governor guards the RPM gauge like a thermostat guards temperature.

Night VFR flights require fuel to the first point of intended landing plus 45 minutes at normal cruising speed, per 14 CFR 91.151(a)(2).

• Night reserve = 45 minutes at cruise burn rate
• Day reserve = 30 minutes
• 'Night' is defined as the time between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight for this rule

Memory trick: Day = 3-0, Night = 4-5 — reserve minutes climb after dark.

A turbocharging approach that restores an engine's sea-level rated manifold pressure at altitude, rather than boosting above sea-level values.

• Still uses a wastegate to regulate boost
• Still has a critical altitude limit
• Differs from 'boosted' turbocharging that exceeds sea-level MP

Memory trick: Normalize to sea level, don't go beyond.

High density altitude reduces engine, propeller, and aerodynamic performance, increasing takeoff distance and climb time, which increases fuel consumption during those phases.

• Density altitude = pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature
• Higher density altitude reduces climb rate and increases takeoff roll
• Fuel planning must add margin for degraded performance on hot/high days

Memory trick: Hot and high, fuel goes bye-bye (uses more)

Fatigue resulting from cumulative sleep debt over an extended period, not resolved by a single night of rest.

• Builds up over days or weeks of inadequate sleep
• More serious and harder to recover from than acute fatigue
• Impairs judgment, reaction time, and decision-making even without overt sleepiness

Memory trick: One bad night = acute; many bad nights = chronic debt piles up

14 CFR 91.213(d) allows flight with inoperative instruments/equipment if they are not required by certification, ADs, or 91.205, are determined not to constitute a hazard, and are deactivated and placarded.

• Applies to aircraft without an approved Minimum Equipment List.
• Requires determination by a pilot or mechanic that the item is not a safety hazard.
• Item must be deactivated and placarded 'Inoperative'.

Memory trick: "No MEL? Check cert, ADs, and 205 — then placard it and go."

A wet lease provides both aircraft and crew with the lessor retaining operational control, typically requiring Part 119 certification; a dry lease provides only the aircraft, with the lessee providing crew and operational control.

• Wet lease = aircraft + crew, lessor retains operational control
• Dry lease = aircraft only, lessee supplies crew/control
• Operational control determines certification requirements

Memory trick: 'Wet lease, crew and control stay with the lessor.'

A self-contained electric pump/reservoir/relief valve assembly that generates hydraulic pressure on demand to actuate landing gear (and often flaps).

• Electric motor drives the pump only when gear/flaps are selected
• Relief valve prevents system over-pressurization
• Common in light retractable-gear singles and twins

Memory trick: Pump on demand, gear responds.

As altitude increases, Vx increases and Vy decreases until they meet at the same speed at the absolute ceiling.

• Excess thrust and power decrease with altitude.
• At absolute ceiling, only one speed produces zero rate of climb.
• This convergence point defines the airplane's absolute ceiling.

Memory trick: Climb speeds shrink together like a V closing into one point at the top.

Standard spin recovery sequence: Power idle, Ailerons neutral, Rudder opposite rotation, Elevator forward to break the stall.

• Ailerons neutral prevents aggravating the spin via adverse yaw.
• Rudder must be applied opposite the spin direction, not aileron.
• Elevator forward reduces AOA below critical to stop autorotation.

Memory trick: PARE down the spin: Power, Ailerons, Rudder, Elevator.

14 CFR 91.409(c) permits exceeding the 100-hour inspection limit by up to 10 hours to reach a place of inspection, but the excess counts toward the next 100 hours due.

• Applies only when flying to a maintenance facility for the inspection.
• Maximum overflight allowed is 10 hours total.
• Next inspection is still due 100 hours after the original due point, not the actual landing time.

Memory trick: "Ten extra hours to find a wrench, but the clock doesn't budge an inch."

The maximum load factor an aircraft structure can withstand without permanent deformation; loads below this value are considered safe.

• Limit load factor: safe design boundary
• Ultimate load factor ≈ 1.5× limit load factor (failure point)
• Gust loads in turbulence must be compared to limit load factor

Memory trick: Stay under the limit, and the airframe stays legit.

14 CFR 61.57(b) requires 3 takeoffs and landings to a full stop at night within the preceding 90 days to carry passengers during the night period.

• Night period defined as 1 hour after sunset to 1 hour before sunrise.
• Full-stop landings are required, not touch-and-go, for this specific currency.
• Separate from the 61.57(a) day currency requiring only 3 takeoffs/landings in any 90 days (may include touch-and-go).

Memory trick: "Ninety days, full stop, after dark — three landings keep your passenger mark."

Flaps increase wing camber and CLmax, allowing the airplane to generate the same lift at a lower airspeed, thus reducing stall speed.

• Stall speed is inversely proportional to the square root of CLmax.
• Flaps also increase drag, aiding steeper approach angles.
• Some flap types increase wing area as well as camber.

Memory trick: More camber, more lift, less speed needed to stay up.

Because turn radius is proportional to the square of true airspeed, even modest speed increases significantly enlarge the turn radius at a constant bank angle.

• r = V²/(11.26 × tan(bank))
• Radius grows with the square of TAS
• Steeper bank reduces radius for the same speed
• High-speed aircraft need much steeper banks to match small-radius turns

Memory trick: Square the speed, then watch your circle spread!

The flight regime at airspeeds slower than L/D max where additional power is required to maintain altitude as airspeed decreases, due to rapidly increasing induced drag.

• Also called 'behind the power curve'
• Occurs below L/D max speed
• Common during slow approaches and landings

Memory trick: Behind the curve, slower needs more power, not less.

Indicated stall speed remains essentially constant with altitude for a given weight/configuration because it reflects dynamic pressure; true stall speed increases with altitude due to decreasing air density.

• Critical AOA is reached at the same IAS regardless of altitude
• TAS at stall increases with altitude (thinner air)
• Pilots reference IAS/CAS for stall margins, not TAS

Memory trick: The gauge doesn't care how thin the air is — IAS stays the same.

Stall speed increases with the square root of load factor during any maneuver imposing G-forces, not just turns.

• Formula: Vs(accelerated) = Vs(1G) × √n
• Applies to pull-ups, turns, and turbulence
• Higher G-load always raises the stall speed

Memory trick: Square root the G's to find the stall's new degrees (of speed).

Turn radius depends on the square of true airspeed and inversely on the tangent of the bank angle: r = V²/(11.26 × tan(bank)).

• Radius increases with the square of TAS
• Steeper bank angle decreases radius
• Formula uses TAS in knots, radius in feet
• Doubling speed quadruples radius at constant bank

Memory trick: Speed squared makes circles spread — faster means wider bend!

A pilot without a type rating must complete aircraft-specific ground and flight training and receive a logbook endorsement before serving as SIC on a type-certificated aircraft requiring two pilots.

• Applies to aircraft requiring more than one pilot
• Training must cover aircraft systems and procedures
• Endorsement of competency required in logbook

Memory trick: 'No type rating? Train and stamp it' before flying as SIC.

A hazardous attitude marked by the tendency to act quickly without considering the safest alternative or gathering adequate information.

• Antidote: 'Not so fast, think first'
• Common in pilots who skip checklists or planning steps
• One of the five classic hazardous attitudes

Memory trick: Impulsive pilots leap before they look.

An FAA-approved alternative under 91.409(d) that divides inspection tasks into smaller segments performed at shorter, recurring intervals to maintain continuous airworthiness.

• Approved under 91.409(d)
• Requires an approved inspection program
• Avoids grounding aircraft for one large annual inspection

Memory trick: 'Progressive = piece by piece' inspection.

14 CFR 91.403(a) makes the owner or operator responsible for maintaining the aircraft in an airworthy condition, including compliance with all applicable ADs.

• ADs are mandatory unless an Alternative Method of Compliance (AMOC) is approved.
• Owner/operator responsibility differs from the mechanic's role of performing and certifying the work.
• PIC must verify airworthiness before flight but is not the party ultimately responsible for AD tracking.

Memory trick: "Owner owns the AD load, though mechanic paves the road."

Converting a true course to a magnetic course requires applying the magnetic variation shown by isogonic lines on a sectional chart.

• East variation: subtract from true course ('East is least')
• West variation: add to true course ('West is best')
• Deviation is applied afterward to get compass heading

Memory trick: East is least, West is best

Glide ratio (L/D) determines distance through the air for a given altitude loss and is unaffected by wind, but actual ground distance covered is reduced by a headwind and increased by a tailwind because groundspeed changes while descent rate does not.

• Headwind reduces groundspeed, not airspeed or descent rate
• Same time aloft but less ground distance into a headwind
• Plan glide approaches accounting for wind to reach a suitable landing site

Memory trick: Same fall through the air, shorter walk across the ground when the wind pushes back.

The tendency to continue an original plan of action even when circumstances suggest changing course, often driven by a desire to reach the destination.

• Also called 'get-there-itis'
• Increases with sunk time/cost invested in the flight
• Countered by pre-set personal minimums and willingness to divert

Memory trick: Almost there is not the same as safely there.

ATC transponders must be tested and inspected within the preceding 24 calendar months per Part 43 Appendix F.

• 24 calendar month interval
• Uses Part 43 Appendix F procedures
• Distinct from the altimeter's Appendix E test

Memory trick: 'F is for Frequency-finder' (transponder) — remember F for the transponder appendix.

A brief manifold pressure spike above rated limits caused by the wastegate's inability to respond as fast as rapid throttle movement; avoided by smooth throttle application.

• Rapid throttle motion outpaces wastegate response
• Can exceed rated manifold pressure limits
• Smooth throttle inputs prevent overboost damage

Memory trick: Slam the throttle, spike the boost — go easy to keep it smooth.

Stall speed increases with the square root of load factor: Vs(accelerated) = Vs(1G) × √n, where n is the load factor for the given bank angle.

• Formula: Vs2 = Vs1 × √n
• 60° bank produces load factor of 2.0
• Stall speed increases, but not linearly with load factor
• Steep turns significantly raise the risk of an accelerated stall

Memory trick: Square root the G to find the new stall degree!

A DME arc is flown by maintaining a constant distance from a VORTAC; drift is corrected using small heading changes toward or away from the station based on DME trend.

• Decreasing DME means aircraft is drifting inside the arc
• Standard correction is a 20° turn away from the station to regain distance
• Once corrected, resume the tangential heading for the arc

Memory trick: Too close? Turn away and toss the drift

The airspeed at which total drag (parasite + induced) is lowest, giving the highest lift-to-drag ratio.

• Parasite drag increases with speed squared; induced drag decreases with speed squared.
• Their sum is minimized at one specific speed — L/D max.
• This speed is the basis for best glide speed.

Memory trick: Where the two drag curves cross, drag is least — and glide is best.

TOD distance is found by determining the time needed to descend at a planned rate and converting that time to distance using groundspeed.

• Time to descend = altitude to lose ÷ descent rate (fpm)
• Distance = groundspeed × (time in minutes/60)
• A common rule of thumb is 3 NM per 1,000 ft at a 3° descent path, but actual rate/groundspeed should be used for precision

Memory trick: Lose the feet, find the minutes, multiply for miles

Parasite drag increases with the square of airspeed; induced drag decreases with the square of airspeed. They are equal at L/D max, the point of minimum total drag.

• Induced drag dominates at low speed/high AOA
• Parasite drag dominates at high speed
• Total drag is minimum where the two curves cross (L/D max)

Memory trick: Slow and draggy from lift (induced), fast and draggy from friction (parasite).

When RPM drops below the selected value, the governor increases oil pressure to the hub, moving blades to a lower pitch angle to restore RPM.

• Flyweights move in during underspeed
• Oil pressure increases to hub
• Blades move to fine (low) pitch, RPM rises

Memory trick: Underspeed = under pitch: low RPM gets low (fine) pitch to speed back up.

Airplanes with higher wing loading (less wing area per pound of weight) experience smaller load factor changes from a given gust than lower wing-loading airplanes, resulting in a smoother ride.

• Gust lift change is proportional to wing area
• Higher wing loading = smaller AOA/lift change per gust
• Explains why heavily wing-loaded aircraft (e.g., jets) ride turbulence more smoothly than light, large-winged aircraft

Memory trick: Small wings, small bumps — high wing loading shrugs off gusts.

A dedicated mechanical safety valve that vents excess induction manifold pressure to prevent engine overboost if the wastegate fails.

• Acts as a backup safeguard independent of wastegate operation
• Opens automatically at a preset maximum manifold pressure
• Distinct from the normal automatic density/absolute pressure controller

Memory trick: Pop-off valve pops before the engine drops.

Under day VFR, a pilot must carry enough fuel to reach the first point of intended landing plus fly 30 minutes at normal cruising speed thereafter.

• Day VFR reserve = 30 minutes at cruise burn rate
• Night VFR reserve = 45 minutes
• Reserve is calculated using normal cruise fuel consumption, not economy cruise

Memory trick: Day = 3 (0 minutes), Night = 4 (5 minutes) — fuel reserves grow after dark.

Groundspeed is the actual speed of the aircraft over the ground, computed as distance flown divided by time elapsed, converted to a per-hour rate.

• GS (kt) = distance (NM) / time (hr)
• Convert minutes to hours by dividing by 60
• Groundspeed differs from true airspeed due to wind

Memory trick: D = S x T, so S = D / T — 'Dirt Sticks to Tires' reminds the order.

A hazardous attitude marked by resentment of rules and authority, expressed as 'Don't tell me.'

• Antidote thought: 'Follow the rules, they are usually right.'
• One of five hazardous attitudes taught in ADM
• Can lead pilots to disregard checklists, regulations, or ATC instructions

Memory trick: Anti-authority says 'Don't tell me!'

For constant lift (weight) in level flight, angle of attack and airspeed are inversely related: as speed increases, less angle of attack is needed to generate the same lift.

• Lift = CL x ½ρV² x S
• In level flight, lift must equal weight
• Higher speed → lower required CL → lower angle of attack

Memory trick: Faster wing, lazier angle — speed and AOA trade places to hold lift steady.

For IFR flights requiring an alternate, the aircraft must carry enough fuel to fly to the destination, then to the alternate airport, then for 45 minutes at normal cruising speed.

• Applies when an alternate is required under 91.169
• Reserve is 45 minutes at normal cruise, same time as night VFR but a different rule
• If no alternate is required, only destination fuel plus 45-minute reserve applies

Memory trick: 'Destination, Diversion, Forty-five' — the IFR fuel triad.

Va is published as calibrated airspeed and provides the same stall-before-overstress protection at any altitude, even though the corresponding true airspeed increases with altitude.

• Va is defined in CAS, not TAS
• TAS for a given CAS increases with altitude
• Pilots should fly the published CAS value for turbulence penetration at any altitude

Memory trick: CAS stays the boss, no matter how high you toss.