FAA Instrument Rating Airplane (IRA) flashcards

A narrow band of active, often severe thunderstorms that forms ahead of an advancing cold front.

• Non-frontal band, typically forms ahead of a cold front
• Can contain severe thunderstorms with little advance warning
• Associated with strong gusty winds, hail, and severe turbulence

Memory trick: Squall line: 'Sudden and Severe, ahead of the frontal sleeve.'

During radar vectors to intercept an approach, the pilot must maintain the last ATC-assigned altitude until established on a published segment of the approach.

• Applies even after being 'cleared for the approach'
• Established means intercepting and tracking a charted course
• Published segment altitudes apply only once established

Memory trick: Hold what ATC gave until the needle's alive

To act as PIC under IFR or in IMC, a pilot must have performed 6 approaches, holding, and course intercept/tracking tasks within the preceding 6 calendar months.

• Applies within preceding 6 calendar months
• Includes 6 approaches, holding, intercepting/tracking courses
• If lapsed beyond 6+6 months, an IPC is required

Memory trick: '6 in 6' - six approaches, holding, tracking, six months.

IFR flights must carry enough fuel to reach the destination, then the alternate (if required), plus fly 45 minutes at normal cruising speed.

• 45-minute reserve after destination/alternate
• VFR reserve is only 30 minutes (91.151) — different rule
• Reserve calculated at normal cruising speed fuel burn

Memory trick: 'IFR: 45 minutes more.'

A non-radar procedure allowing ATC to sequence aircraft for approaches at set time intervals when ceiling and visibility meet or exceed the highest circling minimums for the aircraft category involved.

• Requires reported ceiling/visibility at or above highest circling minimums
• Used when radar is unavailable or out of service
• Aircraft depart the holding fix at specified time intervals toward the airport

Memory trick: No radar? Time it, but only if the weather's clear enough to circle.

A card mounted near the magnetic compass listing the compass heading to steer in order to achieve specific magnetic headings, compensating for deviation caused by onboard magnetic influences.

• Deviation varies by heading due to aircraft electrical/magnetic equipment
• Card typically lists values every 30° or 45°
• Must be updated periodically via compass swing

Memory trick: The card tells you exactly what to 'steer,' just read it directly.

A preplanned IFR route that simplifies clearance delivery from the en route structure to the terminal area, often with charted altitude/speed restrictions.

• Pilots must have the chart to accept a STAR clearance
• 'Descend via' means comply with all altitude restrictions unless amended
• STARs do not replace the approach clearance

Memory trick: STAR = Smooth Transition Avoiding Radio-chatter

WAAS-enabled GPS receivers can lose augmentation while retaining basic GPS RAIM, causing automatic reversion from LPV/LNAV+V to LNAV-only minima.

• LPV provides both lateral and vertical guidance using WAAS
• Loss of WAAS augmentation drops service to LNAV (lateral only)
• Pilot must transition to LNAV MDA, not continue descent on vertical guidance

Memory trick: 'Lose WAAS, lose the glide—go lateral, find your MDA guide.'

Real precession in a directional gyro, caused by internal friction and the earth's rotation, causes gradual drift requiring realignment with the magnetic compass approximately every 15 minutes.

• Not the same as gyroscopic (apparent) precession from applied force
• Realignment should be done during straight, level, unaccelerated flight
• Excessive drift rate may indicate instrument malfunction

Memory trick: Every 15 minutes, reset the DG before it 'wanders off.'

A VOT (VOR Test) check verifies VOR receiver accuracy by tuning a test facility signal; the CDI should center with a FROM indication at 0° (or TO at 180°) within ±4°.

• VOT tolerance is ±4°
• FROM flag should read 0°, TO flag should read 180°
• Must be logged in aircraft records per 91.171

Memory trick: 'VOT: Zero degrees, Four is the fence.'

Using cockpit air as an alternate static source in unpressurized aircraft typically causes lower sensed pressure, resulting in the altimeter reading higher than actual altitude and airspeed reading higher than actual.

• Airspeed also reads slightly high on alternate static source
• POH provides specific correction values
• Effect direction depends on aircraft type and cabin ventilation

Memory trick: Cockpit air is 'thinner' feeling to instruments, so altimeter thinks it's higher.

A PIREP is classified urgent (UUA) rather than routine (UA) when it reports severe turbulence, severe icing, low-level wind shear, volcanic ash, hail, funnel clouds/tornadoes, or other conditions hazardous to flight.

• Urgent PIREPs (UUA) get priority relay to other aircraft and ATC
• Routine PIREPs (UA) report light-to-moderate conditions or general info
• Pilots should give PIREPs unsolicited when hazardous conditions are encountered
• Severe icing and severe turbulence are the most common urgent criteria

Memory trick: Severe = Send it Urgently (UUA)

Default alternate weather minimums are 600-2 for airports with a precision approach and 800-2 for airports with only a nonprecision approach, unless the chart specifies otherwise.

• 600-2 = precision approach available
• 800-2 = nonprecision approach only
• Charted 'NA' or specific alternate minima override the standard

Memory trick: 6 for precision, 8 for none — remember 600/800 by the approach type.

A comparator monitor compares data from redundant attitude, heading, or air data sources and alerts the pilot when values disagree beyond a set tolerance, prompting a cross-check to identify the failed system.

• Common alerts include ATT, HDG, or AIRSPEED miscompare
• Requires cross-check with standby instruments
• Does not by itself identify which source is faulty

Memory trick: Miscompare means 'check both, trust neither yet.'

When an MEA increases along a route, the pilot must climb in time to be at the new, higher MEA by the point where it becomes effective.

• Applies under 91.177 minimum altitude rules
• Climb must be completed before entering higher-MEA segment
• Relevant during lost comm route/altitude determination

Memory trick: Climb before the mountain, not after you're already over it.

An ATC authorization for an IFR aircraft to proceed visually to the airport, requiring the pilot to have the airport or the aircraft to follow in sight and remain clear of clouds.

• IFR flight plan remains active during a visual approach
• Requires reported ceiling ≥1,000 ft and visibility ≥3 SM at the airport, or pilot reports the airport in sight
• Not an instrument approach procedure; no missed approach segment is flown

Memory trick: See it, follow it, land it — visually

Three conditions required for thunderstorm formation: moisture, instability, and a lifting mechanism.

• Moisture provides fuel for cloud/precipitation growth
• Instability (steep lapse rate) allows strong vertical currents
• Lifting mechanisms include fronts, convergence, or surface heating

Memory trick: MIL: Moisture, Instability, Lift — the recipe for storms.

IFR fuel must cover flight to destination, then to the alternate (if required), then 45 minutes at normal cruising speed.

• Add all three legs: destination + alternate + 45 min
• Convert 45 minutes to 0.75 hours for calculation
• Multiply total hours by fuel burn rate (GPH)

Memory trick: Fly there, fly to the backup, then fly 45 more minutes just in case.

91.185(c)(1) states that if the clearance limit is not the destination and an EFC time was received, the pilot must leave the clearance limit at the EFC time.

• If no EFC was received, leave the clearance limit as close as possible to the filed/estimated time en route
• If the clearance limit IS the destination, commence descent/approach as close as possible to the EFC time or ETA
• EFC times are critical for deconflicting lost-comm traffic with ATC

Memory trick: 'EFC tells you when to fly on'

If a pilot fails to meet instrument currency for more than 6 months beyond the initial 6-month period (i.e., total lapse over 6 months past due), an IPC per 61.57(d) is required before further IFR PIC operations.

• 6 months: normal currency window
• Next 6 months: grace period to regain currency via approaches/holding/tracking
• After 12 months total lapse: IPC required with instructor/examiner

Memory trick: '6 to fly, 6 to try, then IPC to qualify.'

Being cleared for a published approach authorizes the pilot to fly the entire depicted procedure from their current position, using the appropriate transition, including omitting a procedure turn where charted as NoPT.

• Approach clearance covers the full charted procedure, not just final segment
• Course reversal required only where charted, not universally
• Transition/feeder route flown must match pilot's position

Memory trick: Cleared for the Approach = Cleared for the WHOLE Chart

A rule of thumb used to estimate convective cloud base height by dividing the temperature/dew point spread (°C) by 2.5 and multiplying by 1,000 feet.

• Spread(°C) ÷ 2.5 = height in thousands of feet AGL
• In °F, divide spread by 4.4
• Only an approximation, not exact

Memory trick: Spread ÷ 2.5 = cloud base thousands of feet.

Holding fix entries are categorized as direct, teardrop, or parallel based on the aircraft's arrival heading relative to the inbound holding course.

• Parallel entry: non-holding side, within 70° of outbound course
• Teardrop entry: holding side, within about 30° of inbound course reciprocal
• Direct entry: remaining larger sector including the inbound course itself

Memory trick: 'Parallel plays it safe on the outside, then turns back inside.'

When the ram-air inlet is iced over but the drain hole stays open, the pitot system slowly equalizes with static pressure, making the ASI behave like an altimeter.

• ASI decreases in a climb, increases in a descent
• Opposite result occurs if both inlet and drain are blocked (frozen reading)
• Pitot heat prevents this scenario

Memory trick: Drain open = ASI 'drains' toward altimeter behavior.

A weather advisory for hazardous conditions significant to all aircraft, including severe icing, severe turbulence, dust/sandstorms, and volcanic ash, not associated with thunderstorms.

• Valid for 4 hours (7 hours for volcanic ash/hurricanes)
• Covers severe (not moderate) icing and turbulence
• Separate from Convective SIGMET, which covers thunderstorm hazards

Memory trick: SIGMET = Severe stuff, not storms; Convective SIGMET = storms specifically.

SRM principles that emphasize prioritizing tasks, using automation, and completing planning tasks early to prevent task saturation during high-workload phases of flight.

• Brief approaches and reconfigure aircraft early, before high workload phases
• Use autopilot/automation to reduce manual control workload
• Task saturation can cause pilots to miss critical altitude/course restrictions
• Core SRM skills: ADM, task management, situational awareness, CFIT avoidance

Memory trick: Plan early, let the autopilot fly, so your brain can talk and think.

A microburst is a small-scale, intense downdraft from a thunderstorm that spreads out at the surface, producing a rapid sequence of increasing headwind, strong downdraft, then increasing tailwind — extremely hazardous during approach or departure.

• Can produce vertical velocities strong enough to exceed aircraft climb performance
• Signature: headwind gain, then downdraft, then tailwind loss
• Typically lasts only a few minutes but can be severe
• Often associated with virga or heavy rain beneath thunderstorms

Memory trick: Microburst: Push in, then Punch down, then Pull out (headwind, downdraft, tailwind)

Thunderstorms progress through three stages: cumulus (updrafts only), mature (updrafts and downdrafts coexist, precipitation begins), and dissipating (downdrafts dominate, storm weakens).

• Mature stage begins when rain reaches the ground
• Mature stage has the greatest hazards: turbulence, hail, lightning, wind shear
• Gust front (outflow boundary) forms during the mature stage
• Dissipating stage is downdraft-dominant with decreasing precipitation

Memory trick: Cumulus climbs, Mature mixes, Dissipating dies down

Convective SIGMETs address thunderstorm hazards and are valid 2 hours; non-convective SIGMETs address severe icing, turbulence, dust storms, and volcanic ash, valid 4 hours (7 for volcanic ash/hurricanes).

• Convective SIGMET: severe/embedded thunderstorms, lines of storms, hail ≥3/4 inch; valid 2 hours
• Non-convective SIGMET: severe icing/turbulence, dust/sandstorms, volcanic ash; valid 4 hours
• Both are significant to all aircraft, unlike AIRMETs

Memory trick: Convective = 2 hours of storms; SIGMET = 4 hours of severe stuff.

Under 14 CFR 91.169, if an alternate is required, standard alternate minimums are 600-2 for a precision approach and 800-2 for a nonprecision approach unless higher minimums are specified on the chart.

• 600 ft ceiling / 2 SM visibility for precision approach alternates
• 800 ft ceiling / 2 SM visibility for nonprecision approach alternates
• Forecast must be valid for 1 hour before to 1 hour after ETA
• Nonstandard alternate minimums are charted with a triangle 'A' symbol

Memory trick: 800 and 2 gets a nonprecision through; 600 and 2 for precision too.

IFR flights must carry enough fuel to reach the destination, then the alternate (if required), then fly 45 minutes at normal cruising speed (piston aircraft).

• Applies fuel math to destination + alternate + 45-minute reserve
• 45 minutes applies to reciprocating engines; 30 minutes to turbine (91.167(a)(3))
• No alternate needed reserve applies if none is required by 91.169

Memory trick: 'Destination, Diversion, then Forty-Five'

The turn coordinator's canted gimbal allows it to sense both roll and yaw rate, giving an earlier indication of turn entry, while the turn-and-slip indicator senses only yaw rate.

• Turn coordinator symbol often depicts a miniature airplane
• Both use a ball to indicate coordination (slip/skid)
• Both are typically electrically powered gyroscopic instruments in modern aircraft

Memory trick: The coordinator 'feels the roll before the yaw catches up.'

Marker beacons transmit vertically along the ILS approach path and are identified by distinct colors and tones as the aircraft crosses them.

• Outer marker: blue light, low tone, dashes
• Middle marker: amber light, alternating dot-dash
• Inner marker: white light, continuous dots

Memory trick: 'Blue is far, Amber is near, White is here.'

Higher minimums published on an ILS approach chart for use when the glideslope is out of service or not used, converting the approach to a nonprecision localizer approach.

• LOC minimums use MDA, not DA
• Applied when glideslope is inoperative or unmonitored
• Always higher (less restrictive descent) than full ILS minimums

Memory trick: No Glideslope? Go LOC, Go Higher

A visual illusion where a stationary light stared at in darkness for several seconds appears to move, potentially causing false control corrections.

• Occurs in dark conditions with a single fixed light source
• Caused by small involuntary eye movements
• Avoid by moving the eyes and not fixating on one light

Memory trick: Stare at one star long enough, it starts to wander.

An alternate must be filed unless the destination has an approved IAP and forecast weather meets the 1-2-3 rule (ceiling 2,000 ft, visibility 3 SM, from 1 hr before to 1 hr after ETA).

• No IAP at destination = alternate always required
• 1-2-3 rule: 2,000 ft ceiling and 3 SM visibility
• Time window: 1 hour before to 1 hour after ETA

Memory trick: '1-2-3': 1 hr window, 2,000 ft ceiling, 3 SM visibility.

The area around an airport within which an aircraft must maneuver during a circling approach to remain assured of the charted obstacle clearance, sized according to aircraft approach category.

• Radius increases with higher approach categories
• Based on aircraft approach speed, not manufacturer's category label
• Obstacle clearance is only guaranteed within this area
• Losing visual reference requires an immediate missed approach

Memory trick: Bigger, faster planes need a bigger circle to stay safe.

Pilot reports (PIREPs) use standardized codes for location, time, altitude, aircraft type, and observed conditions like turbulence and icing.

• UA = routine PIREP, UUA = urgent PIREP
• FL = flight level in hundreds of feet (FL080 = 8,000 ft)
• /OV, /TM, /FL, /TP, /TB, /IC, /RM are standard PIREP element codes

Memory trick: OV-TM-FL-TP-SK-WX-TA-TB-IC-RM: 'Old Timers Fly The Sky With The Ice Report'

A risk management framework dividing flight risk into four categories: Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment, and External pressures.

• Pilot: currency, proficiency, health/IMSAFE
• Aircraft: airworthiness, performance, equipment
• enVironment: weather, terrain, airport, airspace
• External pressures: schedules, passenger expectations, get-there-itis

Memory trick: PAVE the way: Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment, External pressures.

When rolling out of a turn through North, pilots should lead the desired heading by an amount approximately equal to their latitude to compensate for compass lag.

• Lead amount ≈ latitude when turning through North
• No lead (or opposite) typically needed turning through South
• Applies mainly to standby/whiskey compass, not slaved HSI

Memory trick: Lead by your latitude when passing through North.

Under 14 CFR 91.185, when two-way radio communication is lost, a pilot holding at the clearance limit must leave at the EFC time if received, or as close as possible to the ETA from the filed/amended flight plan if no EFC was given.

• EFC time received: leave clearance limit at that time
• No EFC time: leave as close as possible to flight-plan ETA
• Applies specifically when clearance limit is not the destination
• Designed to give ATC predictable timing for separation

Memory trick: No EFC? Use your flight plan's ETA to decide.

An 'NA' notation for alternate minimums means the airport cannot be used as an alternate airport under any conditions.

• Often due to lack of weather reporting equipment
• Different from approach-only NA notations
• Pilot must select a different airport entirely as alternate

Memory trick: NA on alternates means 'Not an option' — pick a different airport.

A hazardous attitude characterized by resentment of rules, regulations, and authority figures, often summarized as 'Don't tell me.'

• One of the five hazardous attitudes in FAA ADM material
• Antidote: 'Follow the rules, they are usually right'
• Can lead to deviating from ATC instructions or regulations

Memory trick: Anti-authority says 'don't tell me' — the antidote says 'follow the rules.'

An illusion where a pilot misinterprets sloping cloud formations, ground lights, or a featureless dark sky as the true horizon, leading to incorrect aircraft attitude control.

• Common at night or in reduced visibility
• Ground lights or sloping clouds can be mistaken for level horizon
• Correct by relying on flight instruments, not outside visual references

Memory trick: Lights lie at night — trust your dials, not the skyline.

A temporary, fluctuating condition forecast to occur intermittently and last less than one hour at a time within a specified period.

• Indicates short-lived, intermittent conditions
• Different from FM (permanent change) and PROB (probability)
• Time range given represents the overall window the temporary conditions may occur

Memory trick: TEMPO means temporary—blink and it's different.

Magnetic dip causes the compass to lag when turning from a northerly heading and lead (overshoot) when turning from a southerly heading in the Northern Hemisphere.

• Undershoot North, Overshoot South (UNOS)
• Errors are greatest near N/S, minimal near E/W
• Caused by vertical component of Earth's magnetic field acting on the compass card

Memory trick: UNOS: Undershoot North, Overshoot South.

When ATC states 'radar contact lost' but issues a specific approach clearance with an altitude instruction, the pilot must comply with that stated altitude until established on the approach, rather than reverting to charted altitudes.

• Explicit ATC altitude instructions override default charted altitudes
• 'Resume own navigation' concerns lateral routing, not altitude
• Pilot must remain at assigned altitude until established on a published segment

Memory trick: When ATC says a number, that number wins — don't guess the chart.

A hazardous attitude in which a pilot believes accidents happen to other people but not to themselves, leading to underestimation of real risk.

• Antidote thought: 'It could happen to me'
• Often reinforced by a history of past flights without incident
• Can lead pilots to disregard PIREPs or warnings applicable to current conditions

Memory trick: Feeling immune to ice is invulnerability's trap

A vestibular illusion caused by abrupt vertical acceleration (e.g., an updraft or downdraft) that creates a false sensation of pitch change.

• Updrafts create a false sense of pitching up
• Downdrafts create a false sense of pitching down
• Pilots should trust instruments over bodily sensations in turbulence

Memory trick: Elevator goes up, nose feels like it goes up too

A safety pilot must hold at least a private pilot certificate with the appropriate category/class rating for the aircraft and must occupy a control seat with adequate visibility.

• No instrument rating required for the safety pilot
• Must hold appropriate category and class rating
• Aircraft must have functioning dual controls

Memory trick: 'See for me while I can't see' - safety pilot just needs private cert + ratings.

Off-Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude provides obstacle clearance for pilots operating off established airways or routes.

• 1,000 ft clearance in non-mountainous terrain
• 2,000 ft clearance in designated mountainous terrain
• Does not guarantee navigation signal or communication reception
• Found in the margins of en route low-altitude charts

Memory trick: OROCA: Obstacles cleared, but Reception Officially Cannot be Assured.

Thunderstorms hidden within a layer of other clouds, making them undetectable by visual means alone.

• Cannot be seen and avoided visually
• Require radar/datalink for detection
• Just as hazardous as isolated storms

Memory trick: If you can't see it, radar must see it for you.

An AIRMET advising of moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30 knots or more, and/or low-level wind shear.

• One of three AIRMET types: Sierra (IFR/mountain obscuration), Tango (turbulence/wind), Zulu (icing/freezing level)
• Valid for 6 hours with outlook
• Advises of hazards significant to light aircraft, not necessarily hazardous to all aircraft

Memory trick: Sierra=Sky (IFR), Tango=Turbulence, Zulu=ice — S-T-Z for AIRMETs.

A defined point on the final approach course of a nonprecision approach from which a normal descent from the MDA to the runway touchdown point may be commenced, provided visual references are in sight.

• Charted as a 'V' on the profile view when published
• When absent, pilot must judge normal descent point manually
• Prevents excessively steep dives to the runway after reaching MDA late on final

Memory trick: No VDP? Judge it—only descend when it's a normal glide.

A charted radial on a DME arc approach indicating where a pilot should begin turning from the arc onto the final approach course to compensate for turn radius.

• Typically begin turn 2-5° before reaching the course radial depending on speed/bank
• Prevents overshooting the final approach course
• Found on approach charts using DME arc transitions

Memory trick: Lead early, roll out neatly onto final.

In the absence of a published climb gradient, an ODP assumes obstacle clearance based on a standard climb gradient of 200 feet per nautical mile.

• 200 ft/NM is the TERPS default for obstacle clearance
• Steeper gradients are explicitly charted when required
• Equivalent climb rate depends on groundspeed (converted using GS/60 × gradient)

Memory trick: Two-hundred is the ODP default — nothing charted, assume 200.

The localizer signal width is calibrated so that full-scale CDI deflection typically represents about 700 feet on each side of centerline at the runway threshold, resulting in an angular course width usually between 3° and 6°.

• Typical full course width: 3°–6° (commonly ~5°)
• Width in feet increases with distance from the antenna
• Formula: half-width (ft) = distance (ft) × tan(half the course angle)

Memory trick: 'Farther out, the beam spreads out.'

Turbulence generated when strong winds flow perpendicular to a mountain ridge in a stable atmosphere, creating oscillating wave patterns downwind, often visualized by lenticular and rotor clouds.

• Requires stable air and strong perpendicular wind (>25 kt)
• Lenticular clouds mark wave crests
• Rotor clouds near the surface indicate severe turbulence zones

Memory trick: Strong wind + stable air + ridge = wave and rotor clouds.

Published nonstandard IFR takeoff minimums are mandatory for Parts 121, 125, and 135 operators but are not legally required for Part 91 operators, though they remain useful for assessing departure safety.

• Mandatory compliance applies to certificated operators (121/125/135)
• Part 91 pilots are not legally bound but should still consider them
• Minimums reflect obstacle clearance assumptions built into departure procedures

Memory trick: Big carriers must, small Part 91 should

61.57(c) currency tasks may be performed either in actual instrument conditions or simulated instrument conditions (with a safety pilot and view-limiting device); actual IMC alone satisfies the by-reference-to-instruments requirement.

• A view-limiting device and safety pilot are needed only for simulated conditions in VMC
• Actual IMC flight inherently meets the regulatory requirement without additional equipment
• Tasks required: 6 approaches, holding, and intercepting/tracking courses within the preceding 6 calendar months

Memory trick: 'Real clouds don't need a hood'