1. During a steep spiral, a commercial pilot applicant loses situational awareness of altitude. According to the Commercial Pilot ACS, at what minimum altitude above the ground must the recovery from a steep spiral be completed?
Flight Maneuvers and Endorsements
A.500 feet AGL
B.1,500 feet AGL
C.1,000 feet AGL
D.2,000 feet AGL
Show answerAnswer
C. 1,000 feet AGL
The Commercial Pilot ACS requires the steep spiral to be performed with a rollout completed no lower than 1,000 feet AGL, providing adequate altitude for recovery and continued safe flight.
2. A tailwheel airplane with a clockwise-rotating propeller (as viewed from the cockpit) is accelerating during the takeoff roll. As the pilot raises the tail to a level attitude, gyroscopic precession causes a yawing tendency. Which best describes this effect?
Aerodynamics and Principles of Flight
A.The airplane yaws left solely due to increased torque reaction from higher engine power
B.The airplane yaws right, because a force applied to the top of the propeller disc is felt 90° later at the bottom
C.The airplane yaws right because P-factor becomes the dominant force at this pitch attitude
D.The airplane yaws left, because a force applied to the top of the propeller disc is felt 90° later at the right side of the disc, in the direction of rotation
Show answerAnswer
D. The airplane yaws left, because a force applied to the top of the propeller disc is felt 90° later at the right side of the disc, in the direction of rotation
Gyroscopic precession causes an applied force on a rotating body to be felt 90° later in the direction of rotation. Raising the tail applies a forward-pitching force to the top of the propeller disc; for a clockwise-rotating prop (viewed from the cockpit), this force is felt 90° later at the right side of the disc, yawing the nose to the left.
3. An approach controller advises a pilot that a Center Weather Advisory (CWA) has just been issued for the arrival airport describing an area of moderate-to-severe turbulence below 10,000 feet. What is the primary purpose of a CWA?
Weather and Weather Services
A.To report only past observed weather at the airport
B.To serve as an unscheduled, short-term advisory for conditions meeting or approaching AIRMET/SIGMET criteria that affect ATC operations
C.To provide a routine 24-hour forecast for planning purposes
D.To replace the need for AIRMETs and SIGMETs in that region
Show answerAnswer
B. To serve as an unscheduled, short-term advisory for conditions meeting or approaching AIRMET/SIGMET criteria that affect ATC operations
A Center Weather Advisory is an unscheduled, short-fuse (typically valid up to 2 hours) forecast issued by a Center Weather Service Unit (CWSU) for conditions that meet or are expected to meet AIRMET/SIGMET criteria, primarily to alert ATC facilities and pilots of hazards affecting operations within an ARTCC's area of responsibility.
4. A pilot studying frontal systems learns that an occluded front forms when a fast-moving cold front overtakes a slower-moving warm front. What is a key characteristic of weather associated with an occluded front?
Weather and Weather Services
A.It produces only clear skies with no precipitation
B.It typically brings a combination of both cold and warm frontal weather characteristics
C.It only occurs in tropical latitudes
D.It always dissipates warm air masses instantly upon formation
Show answerAnswer
B. It typically brings a combination of both cold and warm frontal weather characteristics
An occluded front results from the merging of cold and warm frontal characteristics, since the warm air mass is lifted entirely off the surface; this often produces complex, prolonged weather with features of both frontal types, including extended precipitation and cloud layers.
5. During cruise flight in a retractable-gear airplane equipped with a hydraulic power pack, a pilot notices the gear pump motor cycling on briefly every few minutes, even though the landing gear has been up and locked for over an hour. What does this behavior most likely indicate?
Aircraft Systems and Instruments
A.This is a normal, expected characteristic requiring no attention
B.The landing gear is slowly extending on its own
C.A minor internal hydraulic leak is allowing system pressure to bleed down
D.The pump has failed and gear extension will be impossible
Show answerAnswer
C. A minor internal hydraulic leak is allowing system pressure to bleed down
A hydraulic power pack maintains system pressure using a pressure switch that activates the pump when pressure drops below a set threshold. Periodic pump cycling while the gear is up and locked usually indicates a minor internal leak allowing pressure to slowly bleed off, prompting the pump to restore it. While not usually an immediate emergency, it should be noted and inspected on the ground.
6. During a turn, a pilot notices the ball is displaced toward the low (inside) wing even though the airplane is holding a constant bank angle with rudder applied. This condition, in which the bank angle is too steep for the existing rate of turn, is best described as a:
Aerodynamics and Principles of Flight
A.Slipping turn caused by too much bank for the existing rate of turn
B.Skidding turn caused by excessive rudder for the bank angle
C.Skidding turn caused by insufficient bank angle
D.Slipping turn caused by excess airspeed for the bank angle
Show answerAnswer
A. Slipping turn caused by too much bank for the existing rate of turn
A slipping turn occurs when the bank angle is too steep for the rate of turn (or rudder input is insufficient), causing the airplane to slide toward the inside of the turn and the ball to move toward the low wing. A skidding turn is the opposite—too shallow a bank (or too much rudder) for the rate of turn, sliding the ball toward the outside of the turn.
7. A designer moves an airplane's horizontal stabilizer further aft, increasing the tail moment arm, while keeping the CG location and stabilizer area unchanged. What is the primary effect on longitudinal static stability?
Aerodynamics and Principles of Flight
A.Longitudinal static stability increases, because the longer moment arm produces a greater restoring moment for a given change in tail lift
B.The airplane becomes longitudinally unstable due to increased tail drag
C.Longitudinal static stability decreases, because the tail becomes aerodynamically less effective at high airspeeds
D.Longitudinal static stability is unaffected, since CG location is unchanged
Show answerAnswer
A. Longitudinal static stability increases, because the longer moment arm produces a greater restoring moment for a given change in tail lift
Longitudinal stability depends on the restoring moment the tail generates in response to a disturbance in angle of attack. Moment = force × arm length, so increasing the tail moment arm (distance from CG to the tail's aerodynamic center) increases the restoring moment for the same change in tail lift, enhancing longitudinal static stability.
8. An applicant practicing power-on stall recovery allows the airplane to fully stall. What is the correct first action to begin recovery?
Flight Maneuvers and Endorsements
A.Retract the flaps immediately to reduce drag
B.Apply full power immediately while holding the current pitch attitude
C.Reduce the angle of attack by releasing back-pressure and lowering pitch
D.Level the wings using rudder only, without changing pitch
Show answerAnswer
C. Reduce the angle of attack by releasing back-pressure and lowering pitch
Per FAA guidance, the first step in stall recovery at the first indication of a stall (or full stall) is to reduce the angle of attack to break the stall, since power alone cannot recover from an exceeded critical angle of attack. Power is then added and wings leveled with coordinated control inputs.
9. A pilot plotting a long cross-country route on a Lambert conformal conic sectional chart draws a straight line between the departure and destination airports. This straight line most closely approximates:
Navigation and Airspace
A.A rhumb line of constant magnetic heading
B.A great circle route, the shortest distance between the two points
C.An isogonic line connecting equal magnetic variation
D.A great circle route requiring no heading changes en route
Show answerAnswer
B. A great circle route, the shortest distance between the two points
The Lambert conformal conic projection used for sectional charts closely approximates a great circle as a straight line, making it convenient for plotting the shortest route between two points. However, because the great circle heading changes continuously, pilots typically break long routes into segments and adjust heading periodically.
10. During cruise flight, a pilot notices the center-zero ammeter needle resting exactly on zero with the alternator online and all electrical equipment operating normally. What does this indication mean?
Aircraft Systems and Instruments
A.The alternator has failed and the battery is supplying all loads
B.The battery is neither charging nor discharging because the alternator is supplying all electrical loads
C.The ammeter is malfunctioning and should read a positive value
D.The battery is being charged at a low rate
Show answerAnswer
B. The battery is neither charging nor discharging because the alternator is supplying all electrical loads
A center-zero ammeter shows current flow to or from the battery, not total electrical load. A reading of zero indicates the battery is fully charged and the alternator is supplying exactly the current needed by the electrical system, so no current is flowing into or out of the battery.
11. A student pilot is preparing to fly a solo cross-country flight to an unfamiliar airport. According to 14 CFR 61.93, what must the endorsing instructor verify before signing the student's logbook for this specific flight?
Regulations (14 CFR 61/91)
A.A general endorsement is sufficient, valid for any solo cross-country within 90 days regardless of route
B.An endorsement is only required if the flight exceeds 100 nautical miles
C.No new endorsement is needed if the student has already soloed in the traffic pattern
D.The instructor reviewed the student's preflight planning and preparation and determined the student is prepared to conduct the flight safely under the known circumstances
Show answerAnswer
D. The instructor reviewed the student's preflight planning and preparation and determined the student is prepared to conduct the flight safely under the known circumstances
14 CFR 61.93(c) requires that before conducting a solo cross-country flight, a student pilot's logbook must contain an endorsement for the specific flight, made after the instructor has reviewed the student's preflight planning and preparation and determined the flight can be conducted safely under known conditions.
12. A commercial pilot applicant is performing a power-off 180° accuracy approach and landing. According to the Commercial Pilot ACS, within how many feet beyond or on the specified touchdown point must the airplane touch down?
Flight Maneuvers and Endorsements
A.500 feet
B.1,000 feet
C.100 feet
D.200 feet
Show answerAnswer
D. 200 feet
The Commercial Pilot ACS requires the applicant to touch down within 200 feet beyond or on the specified point, with no side drift, in the proper landing attitude, after closing the throttle abeam the intended landing point and gliding to touchdown.
13. A pilot experiences an engine failure and wants to establish best glide airspeed to maximize gliding distance. This airspeed corresponds to which point on the total drag curve?
Aerodynamics and Principles of Flight
A.The point of minimum induced drag only, regardless of parasite drag
B.The point of minimum parasite drag only, near stall speed
C.The point where induced drag equals parasite drag, producing minimum total drag (L/D max)
D.The point of maximum total drag, where both drag components are highest
Show answerAnswer
C. The point where induced drag equals parasite drag, producing minimum total drag (L/D max)
Best glide speed occurs at L/D max, the point where the total drag curve is at its lowest value. This occurs where the induced drag curve (which decreases with speed) and the parasite drag curve (which increases with speed) intersect, meaning induced drag equals parasite drag, minimizing total drag and maximizing glide ratio.
14. A flight instructor asks a primary student to define 'relative wind.' Which statement correctly describes it?
Aerodynamics and Principles of Flight
A.The direction of the airflow produced by an airplane's motion through the air, which is parallel to and opposite the flight path
B.The angle between the chord line and the horizon
C.The wind direction relative to magnetic north as shown on a sectional chart
D.The surface wind reported by ATIS relative to the runway in use
Show answerAnswer
A. The direction of the airflow produced by an airplane's motion through the air, which is parallel to and opposite the flight path
Relative wind is the airflow that results from the airplane's motion through the atmosphere. It is always parallel to and moves in the opposite direction of the airplane's flight path, and together with the chord line it defines the angle of attack.
15. A commercial pilot applicant is performing eights-on-pylons with a groundspeed of 150 knots. Using the pivotal altitude formula, approximately what altitude AGL must the pilot maintain to keep the pylon on the reference line?
Flight Maneuvers and Endorsements
A.1,991 feet AGL
B.2,265 feet AGL
C.1,274 feet AGL
D.1,495 feet AGL
Show answerAnswer
A. 1,991 feet AGL
Pivotal altitude (ft AGL) = groundspeed (kt)^2 / 11.3. With 150 knots: 150^2 = 22,500; 22,500 / 11.3 ≈ 1,991 feet AGL. This is the altitude at which the pylon appears to pivot on the wingtip reference line, and it varies only with groundspeed, not bank angle.
16. A pilot is flying below the airspeed for maximum lift/drag ratio (L/D max) and decides to slow down further without adding power, intending to maintain altitude. What will happen, and why is this speed range called the region of reversed command?
Aerodynamics and Principles of Flight
A.The airplane will accelerate on its own due to reduced parasite drag
B.Airspeed will stabilize automatically because induced drag decreases as speed decreases
C.Airspeed will decrease further and more power will be required to maintain altitude, the opposite of normal command
D.Less power will be required to maintain the slower airspeed and altitude
Show answerAnswer
C. Airspeed will decrease further and more power will be required to maintain altitude, the opposite of normal command
Below L/D max, induced drag dominates and increases sharply as airspeed decreases further, requiring more power (not less) to maintain altitude at slower speeds. This is the opposite of the normal relationship above L/D max, where more power produces more speed, hence the term 'region of reversed command' or 'back side of the power curve.'
17. An aircraft's ADF indicator shows a relative bearing of 030° to an NDB station while the aircraft's magnetic heading is 090°. What is the magnetic bearing FROM the aircraft TO the station?
Navigation and Airspace
A.120°
B.030°
C.060°
D.150°
Show answerAnswer
A. 120°
Magnetic bearing to the station equals relative bearing plus magnetic heading: MB = RB + MH = 030° + 090° = 120°. If the sum exceeds 360°, 360° is subtracted, but that is not needed here.
18. An airplane has a gross weight of 2,650 lb and a wing area of 175 sq ft. What is its wing loading, and how does higher wing loading generally affect stall speed?
Performance, Weight and Balance
A.15.1 lb/sq ft; increases stall speed
B.15.1 lb/sq ft; decreases stall speed
C.151 lb/sq ft; increases stall speed
D.7.5 lb/sq ft; decreases stall speed
Show answerAnswer
A. 15.1 lb/sq ft; increases stall speed
Wing loading = weight ÷ wing area = 2,650 ÷ 175 ≈ 15.1 lb/sq ft. Higher wing loading requires more lift per unit area, which raises stall speed.
19. A flight instructor explains that as air accelerates over the curved upper surface of a cambered wing, its static pressure decreases relative to the slower-moving air beneath the wing, creating a pressure differential that contributes to lift. This explanation is based on which principle?
Aerodynamics and Principles of Flight
A.Bernoulli's principle
B.Boyle's law
C.The Coriolis effect
D.Newton's third law of motion
Show answerAnswer
A. Bernoulli's principle
Bernoulli's principle states that as the velocity of a fluid increases, its static pressure decreases. Air flowing faster over the curved upper wing surface has lower pressure than the air below, creating a pressure differential that is one of the two commonly cited theories of lift generation.
20. An airport has a field elevation of 3,000 ft. The current altimeter setting is 30.42 inches of mercury. What is the approximate pressure altitude at the field?
21. A pilot's POH shows a takeoff ground roll of 800 ft at a gross weight of 2,000 lb. FAA guidance indicates that a 10% increase in gross weight produces approximately a 20% increase in takeoff distance. What is the estimated takeoff ground roll at a gross weight of 2,200 lb?
Performance, Weight and Balance
A.840 ft
B.880 ft
C.960 ft
D.1,024 ft
Show answerAnswer
C. 960 ft
The weight increase from 2,000 to 2,200 lb is a 10% increase. Applying the rule that a 10% weight increase yields about a 20% increase in takeoff distance: 800 ft × 1.20 = 960 ft.
22. During a preflight briefing, a client asks what happens to the airspeed indicator if the static port becomes completely blocked while the pitot tube remains clear during a climb. Which of the following will occur?
Aircraft Systems and Instruments
A.The airspeed indicator will read lower than actual airspeed as altitude increases
B.The airspeed indicator will freeze at the airspeed present when the blockage occurred
C.The airspeed indicator will read higher than actual airspeed as altitude increases
D.The airspeed indicator will immediately read zero
Show answerAnswer
C. The airspeed indicator will read higher than actual airspeed as altitude increases
With a blocked static port but clear pitot tube, the static pressure in the airspeed indicator case remains trapped at the pressure present at the altitude where the blockage occurred. As the aircraft climbs, ambient static pressure decreases, but the pitot (ram air) pressure changes normally, causing the differential to increase and the airspeed indicator to over-read as altitude increases.
23. An aircraft's normal hydraulic landing gear extension system fails during approach, and the pilot must use the emergency extension system. Which of the following best describes the typical operating principle of a manual emergency gear extension system?
Aircraft Systems and Instruments
A.It engages an auxiliary electric motor that drives the hydraulic pump at a higher pressure than normal
B.It uses a mechanical hand pump or release mechanism that bypasses the normal hydraulic system to allow gravity or spring force to extend the gear
C.It automatically extends the gear using a barometric switch that senses low altitude
D.It requires the pilot to manually pump hydraulic fluid at higher pressure into the same lines used by the normal system
Show answerAnswer
B. It uses a mechanical hand pump or release mechanism that bypasses the normal hydraulic system to allow gravity or spring force to extend the gear
Most emergency gear extension systems work by mechanically releasing uplocks and disconnecting the gear from the normal hydraulic system, allowing gravity, air loads, and/or springs to freely extend and lock the landing gear, often assisted by a hand pump or a free-fall mechanism, independent of the failed hydraulic power source.
24. A turboprop pilot experiences a complete engine failure in cruise flight. To minimize drag and prevent damage from windmilling, the pilot should expect the propeller to move toward which position, and by what system is this accomplished?
Aircraft Systems and Instruments
A.Flat pitch, accomplished by the governor reducing oil pressure to the propeller dome
B.Full fine pitch, accomplished by centrifugal twisting moment alone
C.Full reverse pitch, accomplished by the beta control system
D.Feathered position, accomplished by high-pressure oil driven by a feathering pump acting against counterweights or a spring
Show answerAnswer
D. Feathered position, accomplished by high-pressure oil driven by a feathering pump acting against counterweights or a spring
Feathering rotates the propeller blades to an edge-on position relative to the relative wind, minimizing drag and preventing windmilling after an engine failure. This is typically accomplished using high-pressure oil from a feathering pump (or accumulator) that overcomes counterweights or springs designed to drive blades toward feather when normal governor oil pressure is lost.
25. A student pilot flies solo from Airport A to Airport B, landing at a point 40 nautical miles (straight-line distance) from Airport A. The student wants to log this flight time as cross-country time toward the aeronautical experience requirements for a private pilot certificate. According to 14 CFR 61.1, may this time be logged as qualifying cross-country time?
Regulations (14 CFR 61/91)
A.Yes, provided the student used pilotage or dead reckoning during the flight
B.No, because a student pilot solo cross-country flight must be at least 100 nautical miles to qualify
C.Yes, because the flight meets the 50 nautical mile straight-line distance requirement
D.No, because the landing point must be more than 50 nautical miles from the original point of departure to count toward the private pilot aeronautical experience requirement
Show answerAnswer
D. No, because the landing point must be more than 50 nautical miles from the original point of departure to count toward the private pilot aeronautical experience requirement
Under 14 CFR 61.1(b)(3)(ii), for the purpose of meeting private pilot (and commercial pilot/instrument rating) aeronautical experience requirements, cross-country time must include a landing at a point that is a straight-line distance of more than 50 nautical miles from the original point of departure. A 40 NM landing does not meet this threshold, even though it may satisfy the general definition of cross-country time used for other logging purposes.
A gliding maneuver consisting of three or more 360° turns to develop division of attention and wind-drift correction, which must be completed no lower than 1,000 feet AGL.
Performed with power at idle in a continuous gliding descent
Bank angle should not exceed 60°
Maintains a constant radius around a ground reference point
A property of rotating bodies where an applied force results in a deflection felt 90° later in the direction of rotation; on takeoff, raising the tail causes a left-yawing tendency in airplanes with clockwise-rotating propellers.
One of the four left-turning tendencies
Force applied 90° ahead in direction of rotation is where the effect appears
Most noticeable in tailwheel airplanes when raising/lowering the tail
A CWA is an unscheduled inflight weather advisory issued by a Center Weather Service Unit (CWSU) for conditions meeting or approaching AIRMET/SIGMET criteria, valid for up to 2 hours, primarily to support ATC and pilot awareness.
Issued by CWSU meteorologists at ARTCCs
Valid for a maximum of 2 hours
Supplements, does not replace, AIRMETs and SIGMETs
A frontal boundary formed when a fast-moving cold front catches up to and overtakes a slower warm front, lifting the warm air mass completely off the surface.
Two types: cold-type and warm-type occlusion
Weather combines characteristics of both cold and warm fronts
Often associated with the mature/dissipating stage of a mid-latitude cyclone
A landing gear hydraulic power pack uses a pressure switch to activate the electric pump whenever system pressure drops below a set value, often due to a minor internal leak.
Power pack includes reservoir, pump, selector valve, actuators, and relief valve
Pressure switch cycles pump automatically to maintain pressure
Frequent cycling with gear up may indicate an internal leak needing maintenance
A slip occurs when bank is too steep for the turn rate (ball toward inside/low wing); a skid occurs when bank is too shallow for the turn rate (ball toward outside).
The distance from the CG to the horizontal stabilizer's aerodynamic center; a longer moment arm increases the restoring moment and enhances longitudinal static stability.
Moment = force × arm length
Longer tail arm increases stabilizing moment
CG position and tail arm both affect longitudinal stability
Before each solo cross-country flight, a student pilot must receive training in the required areas and a specific logbook endorsement confirming the instructor reviewed planning and deems the flight safe to conduct.
A maneuver where the pilot closes the throttle abeam the intended landing point and glides to a touchdown within a specified distance, demonstrating engine-out landing proficiency.
Throttle closed abeam the specified point
ACS tolerance: touchdown within 200 feet beyond or on the point
The total drag curve is the sum of parasite drag (increasing with speed²) and induced drag (decreasing with speed); minimum total drag occurs at L/D max, which is the best glide/best range speed.
Induced drag dominates at low speed; parasite drag dominates at high speed
L/D max = point where the two curves intersect
Above L/D max is the region of normal command; below is region of reversed command
The altitude AGL at which, for a given groundspeed, the projected line of sight to a pylon remains fixed, allowing the pylon to appear to pivot on the wingtip during eights-on-pylons.
Formula: PA (ft AGL) = GS(kt)^2 / 11.3
Pivotal altitude changes with groundspeed, not bank angle
Wind requires constant altitude adjustment during the maneuver as groundspeed changes
The speed range below L/D max (minimum drag speed) where additional power is required to fly slower and maintain altitude, the opposite of the normal power-speed relationship.
Also called the 'back side of the power curve'
Occurs during slow flight, approach, and landing configurations
Requires pitch for airspeed and power for altitude control technique
The magnetic bearing to an NDB station equals the relative bearing shown on the ADF indicator plus the aircraft's magnetic heading (subtract 360° if the sum exceeds 360°).
RB is measured clockwise from the nose of the aircraft
Wing loading is gross weight divided by wing area (lb/sq ft); higher wing loading increases stall speed but generally gives a smoother ride in turbulence.
As the velocity of a fluid increases, its static pressure decreases; applied to airfoils, faster airflow over the curved upper surface produces lower pressure than the lower surface.
One of two accepted theories of lift (with Newton's third law)
Faster airflow = lower static pressure
Works together with downwash (Newton's laws) to fully explain lift
Pressure altitude is the altitude indicated when the altimeter is set to 29.92 inHg; it is found by correcting field elevation for the difference between the current setting and standard pressure.
PA = field elevation + (29.92 − altimeter setting) × 1,000
Because takeoff distance depends on the square of liftoff speed, small increases in gross weight cause disproportionately larger increases in required takeoff distance.
If the static port is blocked, the airspeed indicator acts like an altimeter, reading high in a climb and low in a descent relative to the trapped reference pressure.
A backup mechanism that bypasses the normal hydraulic/electric gear system, using mechanical release and gravity, airloads, or springs (sometimes aided by a hand pump) to extend and lock the landing gear.
Bypasses failed normal hydraulic/electric system
Relies on gravity, air loads, or springs for extension
May require manual hand pump or crank to complete the process
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