ACS
Airman Certification Standards; FAA document outlining pilot certification requirements.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Free knowledge base
FAA Private Pilot Airplane (PAR) — key terms, tricks & tips
Everything from the course in one searchable place: 364 entries. Use it to review before a practice test or look up a word you forgot.
364 results · showing first 300, refine your search
Practical Test
The 'checkride'; flight and oral exam for a pilot certificate.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Aeronautical Knowledge
Facts and concepts a pilot must understand for safe flight.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Risk Management
Identifying and mitigating hazards to ensure flight safety.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Flight Proficiency
Ability to perform flight maneuvers and procedures to standards.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Tolerances
Acceptable deviations from ideal performance (e.g., altitude, airspeed).
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Checkride
Informal term for the practical test, evaluating pilot skills.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Knowledge Test
Multiple-choice exam on aeronautical knowledge, prerequisite for practical test.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Understanding the FAA Private Pilot ACS
ACS: Always Certify Safely! It covers what you Know, how you Manage risks, and what Skills you have.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Understanding the FAA Private Pilot ACS
For the knowledge test, remember that the ACS *replaced* the PTS (Practical Test Standards). Questions might ask about the purpose of the ACS or its components, so focus on the integration of knowledge, risk, and skill.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Understanding the FAA Private Pilot ACS
Confusing the ACS with the Knowledge Test; they are distinct evaluations.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Understanding the FAA Private Pilot ACS
Ignoring the Risk Management section of the ACS; it's as important as flight proficiency.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Understanding the FAA Private Pilot ACS
Viewing the ACS as just a 'test' document rather than a guide for safe, real-world flying.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Endorsement
Instructor's written approval to take the knowledge test.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Multiple-choice
Question format with one correct answer among choices.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Passing Score
Minimum 70% required to pass the FAA Knowledge Test.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Retesting
Process for taking the exam again after a failed attempt.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Computer Testing Center
Authorized facility where FAA exams are administered.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Navigating the FAA Knowledge Test
To remember the test requirements: 'K-E-Y': Knowledge (study!), Endorsement (get it!), Your Score (70% or more!).
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Navigating the FAA Knowledge Test
For the FAA Knowledge Test, remember that all questions are multiple-choice with three options (A, B, C). You must achieve a minimum score of 70% to pass. Keywords to spot in questions often include 'minimum,' 'maximum,' 'should,' or 'must,' indicating specific regulatory requirements or best practices.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Navigating the FAA Knowledge Test
Memorizing answers instead of understanding concepts, leading to confusion on differently worded questions.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Navigating the FAA Knowledge Test
Not practicing with figures and charts, which are integral to many questions.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Navigating the FAA Knowledge Test
Rushing through questions or not reading them carefully, missing critical details or keywords.
Getting Started: Your Path to a Private Pilot Certificate
Pilot in Command (PIC)
The person directly responsible for the operation of an aircraft.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Category
Broad classification of aircraft (e.g., airplane, rotorcraft, glider).
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Class
Classification within a category (e.g., single-engine land, multi-engine sea).
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Type
Specific make and basic model of aircraft (e.g., Boeing 747, Cessna 172).
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Flight Review
Recurrent training every 24 calendar months to maintain pilot currency.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Pro Rata Share
Proportional share of operating expenses that can be shared with passengers.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
14 CFR Part 61: Pilot Certification & Currency
90-DAY-NIGHT: 90 days for passenger currency, DAY for day landings, NIGHT for night landings (1 hour after sunset to 1 hour before sunrise).
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
14 CFR Part 61: Pilot Certification & Currency
For the exam, memorize the 90-day rule for passenger currency (3 takeoffs/landings in same category/class) and the 24-calendar-month rule for flight reviews. Also, know the specific times for night currency (1 hour after sunset to 1 hour before sunrise).
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
14 CFR Part 61: Pilot Certification & Currency
Forgetting that solo flights do not count for passenger currency.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
14 CFR Part 61: Pilot Certification & Currency
Confusing the 90-day passenger currency with the 24-calendar-month flight review.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
14 CFR Part 61: Pilot Certification & Currency
Believing you can be paid for your time as a private pilot, even if just for expenses beyond pro rata share.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
PIC
Pilot In Command; final authority and responsibility for flight.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
14 CFR Part 91
Federal Aviation Regulations for general operating and flight rules.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
8-hour bottle to throttle
Minimum time between alcohol consumption and flying.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Congested area
Area with dwellings, people, or vehicles.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Right-of-way
Rules determining which aircraft has precedence.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
NOTAM
Notice to Airmen; time-critical aeronautical information.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Airworthiness
Aircraft's suitability for safe flight.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
14 CFR Part 91: General Operating & Flight Rules
Alcohol: '8 hours, .04, no go!' - Remember the 8-hour rule and the 0.04% BAC limit. For right-of-way: 'Balloons Go Airships Away!' (Balloons > Gliders > Airships > Airplanes).
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
14 CFR Part 91: General Operating & Flight Rules
For the exam, pay close attention to the specific altitudes for congested vs. uncongested areas and the '8 hours bottle to throttle' rule. Also, memorize the right-of-way hierarchy: distressed aircraft always first, then balloons, gliders, airships, and finally airplanes.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
14 CFR Part 91: General Operating & Flight Rules
Forgetting to check NOTAMs and TFRs (Temporary Flight Restrictions) during preflight planning.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
14 CFR Part 91: General Operating & Flight Rules
Misinterpreting minimum safe altitudes, especially over sparsely populated areas or open water.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
14 CFR Part 91: General Operating & Flight Rules
Not understanding the specific right-of-way rules when converging with different types of aircraft.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Medical Certificate
FAA document proving a pilot's fitness to fly, required for PIC duties.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
First-Class Medical
Highest medical certificate, required for ATP privileges.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Third-Class Medical
Minimum medical certificate required for Private Pilot privileges.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
NTSB Part 830
Regulations governing notification and reporting of aircraft accidents/incidents.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Aircraft Accident
Occurrence with death, serious injury, or substantial damage to aircraft.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Serious Injury
Injury requiring hospitalization, bone fractures, severe burns, etc.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Substantial Damage
Damage affecting structural strength, performance, or flight characteristics.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Immediate Notification
NTSB must be notified as soon as practicable for accidents/serious incidents.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Medical Certificates, Documents & NTSB 830
AROW: Airworthiness Certificate, Registration Certificate, Operating Limitations (POH), Weight and Balance. Remember these for required aircraft documents!
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Medical Certificates, Documents & NTSB 830
Memorize the specific validity periods for each class of medical certificate, especially the differences for pilots under and over 40. Also, know the AROW acronym and the exact definitions of 'serious injury' and 'substantial damage' for NTSB reporting.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Medical Certificates, Documents & NTSB 830
Confusing the validity periods of different medical certificate classes, especially how they 'downgrade' over time.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Medical Certificates, Documents & NTSB 830
Forgetting one of the required aircraft documents (AROW) during a pre-flight check.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Medical Certificates, Documents & NTSB 830
Misinterpreting the definitions of 'serious injury' or 'substantial damage' and failing to report a required NTSB event.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
VFR
Visual Flight Rules, requiring specific weather conditions.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Visibility
Horizontal distance an observer can see.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Cloud Clearance
Required distance from clouds for VFR flight.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Class A Airspace
High altitude controlled airspace, IFR only.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Class B Airspace
Controlled airspace around busiest airports, requires ATC clearance.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Class G Airspace
Uncontrolled airspace, generally from surface upwards.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
See and Avoid
Pilot responsibility to maintain vigilance for other aircraft.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
VFR Weather Minimums, Airspace Rules & Right-of-Way
Remember 'C-D-E, 3-1-5-2' for Class C, D, E (below 10,000 MSL) weather minimums: 3 SM visibility, 1000' above, 500' below, 2000' horizontal.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
VFR Weather Minimums, Airspace Rules & Right-of-Way
Memorize the VFR weather minimums for each airspace class (A, B, C, D, E, G) and whether ATC communication is required. Pay close attention to the differences between day and night minimums in Class G airspace, and the changes in Class E above and below 10,000 feet MSL. Keywords to spot include 'visibility,' 'cloud clearance,' and specific airspace designations.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
VFR Weather Minimums, Airspace Rules & Right-of-Way
Confusing VFR weather minimums between different airspace classes, especially Class E above/below 10,000 MSL or Class G day/night.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
VFR Weather Minimums, Airspace Rules & Right-of-Way
Forgetting that aircraft in distress always have the right-of-way, overriding other rules.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
VFR Weather Minimums, Airspace Rules & Right-of-Way
Not understanding that the aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way and the overtaking aircraft must pass to the right.
Aviation Regulations: The Rules of the Sky
Controlled Airspace
Airspace where ATC provides air traffic services.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Uncontrolled Airspace
Airspace where ATC does not control air traffic.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
VFR Minimums
Minimum visibility and cloud clearance for Visual Flight Rules.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Mode C Transponder
Aircraft equipment that reports altitude to ATC radar.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
IFR Clearance
ATC authorization to operate under Instrument Flight Rules.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Flight Level (FL)
Altitude in hundreds of feet above 29.92" Hg standard pressure datum.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
MSL
Mean Sea Level; true altitude above average sea level.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
AGL
Above Ground Level; altitude above the terrain.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Airspace Classes A-G: Requirements & Operations
C-D-E: C is for Communication (two-way radio), D is for Dialogue (establish two-way communication), E is for Everywhere (most common controlled airspace).
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Airspace Classes A-G: Requirements & Operations
For Class B airspace, remember that an ATC clearance is required to enter, not just two-way radio communication. The phrase 'cleared into Class B airspace' is key. Also, know the VFR weather minimums for Class G airspace below 1,200 feet AGL: 1 SM visibility and clear of clouds during the day, 3 SM visibility and cloud clearances at night.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Airspace Classes A-G: Requirements & Operations
Forgetting to establish two-way radio communication before entering Class D airspace (you must hear your callsign back).
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Airspace Classes A-G: Requirements & Operations
Entering Class B airspace without an explicit 'cleared into Class B' clearance.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Airspace Classes A-G: Requirements & Operations
Incorrectly applying VFR weather minimums, especially in Class G airspace where they change based on altitude and time of day.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Prohibited Area
Airspace where flight is entirely forbidden for national welfare.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Restricted Area
Airspace with invisible hazards; entry requires controlling agency permission.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Warning Area
Hazardous activity over international waters; extreme caution advised.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
MOA
Military Operations Area; military training, VFR flight permitted with caution.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Alert Area
High volume of pilot training; VFR flight permitted with caution.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
CFA
Controlled Firing Area; activities suspended when aircraft approach.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
TFR
Temporary Flight Restriction; temporary airspace restriction via NOTAM.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
MTR
Military Training Route; low-altitude, high-speed military training routes.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Special Use Airspace & Other Airspace Areas
PRWAMC: 'Pilots Really Want A Military Check' – Prohibited, Restricted, Warning, Alert, MOA, CFA.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Special Use Airspace & Other Airspace Areas
For the exam, memorize the letter designators (P, R, W, A, MOA, IR/VR) and the primary characteristic of each Special Use Airspace. Pay close attention to whether entry is 'prohibited,' 'restricted without permission,' or 'permitted with caution.' Remember that CFAs are NOT charted.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Special Use Airspace & Other Airspace Areas
Mistaking a Warning Area for a Prohibited Area and unnecessarily diverting your flight.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Special Use Airspace & Other Airspace Areas
Failing to check NOTAMs for Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs) before and during flight.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Special Use Airspace & Other Airspace Areas
Assuming a Restricted Area is inactive without contacting the controlling agency.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Special Use Airspace & Other Airspace Areas
Entering a Prohibited Area due to lack of pre-flight planning or situational awareness.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Runway Incursion
Any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle, or person.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Holding Position Markings
Yellow lines indicating where an aircraft must stop before a runway or critical area.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Mandatory Instruction Sign
Red background, white letters; indicates an area where an aircraft must hold short.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Location Sign
Black background, yellow letters; identifies the taxiway or runway the aircraft is on.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Traffic Pattern
A rectangular course flown around an airport to ensure an orderly flow of traffic.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Pattern Altitude
The published altitude at which the traffic pattern is flown, usually 1,000 feet AGL.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
VASI/PAPI
Visual aids providing glide slope information using red and white lights.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Airport Markings, Lighting & Traffic Patterns
Red signs make you STOP, Black signs tell you WHERE you're AT.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Airport Markings, Lighting & Traffic Patterns
For the exam, memorize the color schemes for runway vs. taxiway markings (white for runway, yellow for taxiway) and lighting (white for runway edge, blue for taxiway edge, green for taxiway centerline). Also, know the meaning of red vs. black background signs.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Airport Markings, Lighting & Traffic Patterns
Confusing runway holding position markings (solid lines closest to the runway) with taxiway markings.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Airport Markings, Lighting & Traffic Patterns
Failing to enter the traffic pattern at the correct altitude and at a 45-degree angle to the downwind leg.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Airport Markings, Lighting & Traffic Patterns
Misinterpreting VASI/PAPI indications, leading to an incorrect glide path.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
ATC
Air Traffic Control; provides services to aircraft.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Phraseology
Standardized words and phrases used in aviation communication.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Readback
Repeating an ATC instruction to confirm understanding.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Roger
Indicates receipt of the last transmission.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Wilco
Indicates receipt of transmission and compliance will follow.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Squawk Code
A four-digit transponder code assigned by ATC.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Lost Communications
Failure of two-way radio communication with ATC.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Light Signals
Visual signals from the tower to aircraft with lost comms.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
ATC Communications & Radio Procedures
For initial contact, remember: 'Who are you calling? Who are you? Where are you? What do you want?' (WWWW).
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
ATC Communications & Radio Procedures
The exam often tests specific phraseology and lost communication procedures. Memorize the VFR lost comms rule: 'land as soon as practicable,' and know the meaning of tower light signals.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
ATC Communications & Radio Procedures
Transmitting without listening first, causing interference.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
ATC Communications & Radio Procedures
Using non-standard phraseology, leading to confusion or delays.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
ATC Communications & Radio Procedures
Failing to read back critical instructions like runway assignments or altimeter settings.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
ATC Communications & Radio Procedures
Not knowing lost communication procedures for VFR flight.
Airspace and Airports: Navigating the National Airspace System
Troposphere
Lowest atmospheric layer; all weather occurs here.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Stability
Atmosphere's resistance to vertical air motion.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Cold Front
Cold air replaces warm air; brings intense, short weather.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Warm Front
Warm air replaces cold air; brings widespread, steady weather.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Radiation Fog
Forms on clear, calm nights due to ground cooling.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Advection Fog
Warm, moist air moves over a cool surface.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Dew Point
Temperature at which air becomes saturated.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Atmosphere, Stability, Fronts & Fog
Remember 'CATS' for Cold fronts: Cumulus clouds, Air unstable, Thunderstorms, Short duration. For Warm fronts, think 'SWANS': Stratiform clouds, Widespread precipitation, Air stable, Nimbostratus, Slow moving.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Atmosphere, Stability, Fronts & Fog
Memorize the general weather associated with each front type: Cold fronts bring narrow bands of severe weather (thunderstorms, heavy rain); Warm fronts bring widespread, steady precipitation and stratiform clouds. For fog, know the conditions for radiation (clear, calm night) and advection (warm, moist air over cold surface).
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Atmosphere, Stability, Fronts & Fog
Confusing the weather associated with cold fronts versus warm fronts. Cold fronts are generally more violent but shorter-lived.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Atmosphere, Stability, Fronts & Fog
Underestimating the rapid onset and density of radiation fog, especially in the morning hours.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Atmosphere, Stability, Fronts & Fog
Not understanding that stability determines vertical air movement and thus cloud types (cumuliform vs. stratiform).
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Thunderstorm
Severe weather with lightning, thunder, strong winds, and heavy rain.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Microburst
Intense localized downdraft, causing dangerous divergent winds near the ground.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Wind Shear
Sudden, drastic change in wind speed and/or direction over a small distance.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Structural Icing
Ice forming on the exterior surfaces of an aircraft in flight.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Induction Icing
Ice forming in the engine's air intake or carburetor, reducing power.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Rime Ice
Rough, opaque ice formed by small supercooled water droplets.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Clear Ice
Smooth, transparent ice formed by large supercooled water droplets.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Supercooled Water
Liquid water existing at temperatures below 0°C (32°F).
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Thunderstorms, Icing & Other Weather Hazards
To remember the thunderstorm stages: C-M-D. 'Clouds Make Danger.' Cumulus (building clouds), Mature (most dangerous), Dissipating (dying down).
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Thunderstorms, Icing & Other Weather Hazards
For the exam, remember the three ingredients for a thunderstorm: moisture, unstable air, and a lifting action. Also, know the three stages and their dominant characteristics (updrafts, updrafts/downdrafts, downdrafts). For icing, differentiate between rime and clear ice and their associated temperatures.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Thunderstorms, Icing & Other Weather Hazards
Underestimating the danger of a dissipating thunderstorm; wind shear can still be severe.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Thunderstorms, Icing & Other Weather Hazards
Attempting to fly through any part of a thunderstorm, even a 'small' one.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Thunderstorms, Icing & Other Weather Hazards
Not recognizing the early signs of icing and delaying action to exit the conditions.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
METAR
Meteorological Aerodrome Report; current airport weather.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
TAF
Terminal Aerodrome Forecast; airport weather forecast.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
UTC (Zulu)
Coordinated Universal Time; standard time for aviation.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
SM
Statute Miles; unit for visibility.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
FM
From; rapid change in TAF conditions.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
TEMPO
Temporary; brief, short-duration changes in TAF.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
BECMG
Becoming; gradual change in TAF conditions.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Decoding METARs and TAFs
METAR is 'M' for 'Moment' – current weather. TAF is 'T' for 'Tomorrow' – future weather.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Decoding METARs and TAFs
On the exam, pay close attention to the time in METARs and TAFs (Zulu vs. local), wind direction (true vs. magnetic), and visibility units (statute miles). Keywords like 'FM', 'TEMPO', and 'PROB' in TAFs are critical for understanding the forecast timeline.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Decoding METARs and TAFs
Confusing UTC (Zulu) time with local time, leading to misinterpreting when a report was issued or when a forecast is valid.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Decoding METARs and TAFs
Misinterpreting wind direction as magnetic instead of true, which can lead to incorrect runway selections or crosswind calculations.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Decoding METARs and TAFs
Ignoring the temporal indicators (FM, TEMPO, BECMG, PROB) in a TAF, which can cause a misunderstanding of when forecasted conditions are expected to occur or how long they will last.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
AIRMET
Advisory of significant weather for all aircraft, lower intensity than SIGMETs.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
SIGMET
Advisory of severe weather hazardous to all aircraft, higher intensity.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Convective SIGMET
Advisory for hazardous convective weather like severe thunderstorms.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Standard Briefing
Comprehensive weather briefing for pre-flight planning.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Abbreviated Briefing
Shortened briefing to update or get specific weather info.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Outlook Briefing
General weather trends for flights more than 6 hours away.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
FSS
Flight Service Station, provides official weather briefings.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
IFR Conditions
Instrument Flight Rules conditions: low ceilings or visibility.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
AIRMETs, SIGMETs & Weather Briefings
Remember 'STZ' for AIRMETs: Sierra (Stability/IFR), Tango (Turbulence/Wind), Zulu (Zero C/Icing).
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
AIRMETs, SIGMETs & Weather Briefings
The exam often tests the specific conditions that trigger an AIRMET or SIGMET. Memorize the key characteristics for AIRMET Sierra (IFR, mountain obscuration), Tango (moderate turbulence, strong surface winds, low-level wind shear), and Zulu (moderate icing, freezing levels). For SIGMETs, focus on severe icing/turbulence (not convective), dust/sand storms, and volcanic ash. Convective SIGMETs are for severe thunderstorms, tornadoes, large hail, and strong surface winds.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
AIRMETs, SIGMETs & Weather Briefings
Confusing the intensity levels between AIRMETs and SIGMETs; SIGMETs are for more severe conditions.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
AIRMETs, SIGMETs & Weather Briefings
Not understanding that Convective SIGMETs specifically address thunderstorm-related hazards.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
AIRMETs, SIGMETs & Weather Briefings
Failing to get a comprehensive Standard Briefing before a flight, relying only on general weather apps.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Density Altitude
Pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Pressure Altitude
Altitude indicated when altimeter is set to 29.92 inHg.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Standard Temperature
15°C at sea level, decreasing 2°C per 1,000 feet.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Air Density
Mass of air per unit volume; affects aircraft performance.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
True Airspeed (TAS)
Actual speed through the air; increases with altitude/temp.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
Speed shown on airspeed indicator; used for performance.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Density Altitude: Its Impact on Aircraft Performance
Hot, High, Humid = Horrible Performance. Think of a hot air balloon; it needs hot, less dense air to go up, but an airplane needs dense air to perform well.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Density Altitude: Its Impact on Aircraft Performance
For the exam, be prepared to calculate density altitude using a given pressure altitude and outside air temperature. Remember that standard temperature decreases by 2°C for every 1,000 feet of altitude. High density altitude always means poorer aircraft performance.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Density Altitude: Its Impact on Aircraft Performance
Confusing density altitude with actual physical altitude. Density altitude is a performance indicator, not a location.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Density Altitude: Its Impact on Aircraft Performance
Forgetting that humidity contributes to higher density altitude and reduced performance, even if temperature isn't extremely high.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Density Altitude: Its Impact on Aircraft Performance
Underestimating the impact of high density altitude on takeoff and landing distances, leading to insufficient runway planning.
Weather Theory and Services: Understanding Aviation Weather
Lift
Upward force, opposes weight, generated by wings.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Weight
Downward force due to gravity on aircraft mass.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Thrust
Forward force, generated by engine/propeller.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Drag
Rearward force, opposes motion through air.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Ailerons
Primary control for roll, on wing trailing edge.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Elevator
Primary control for pitch, on horizontal stabilizer.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Rudder
Primary control for yaw, on vertical stabilizer.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Flaps
Secondary controls, increase lift and drag for slow flight.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
The Four Forces of Flight & Aircraft Control
Remember 'L-W-T-D' for Lift, Weight, Thrust, Drag. Lift opposes Weight, Thrust opposes Drag.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
The Four Forces of Flight & Aircraft Control
The FAA exam frequently asks about the relationship between the four forces in different flight conditions (e.g., climb, descent, straight-and-level). Memorize that in unaccelerated flight, opposing forces are equal.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
The Four Forces of Flight & Aircraft Control
Confusing the purpose of ailerons (roll) with the rudder (yaw).
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
The Four Forces of Flight & Aircraft Control
Forgetting that all four forces are always present, even if one is dominant.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
The Four Forces of Flight & Aircraft Control
Incorrectly assuming that increased power always means increased speed; it can also mean increased climb rate if pitch is adjusted.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Stall
Loss of lift due to exceeding the critical angle of attack.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Critical Angle of Attack
Angle at which airflow separates, regardless of airspeed.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Load Factor
Ratio of lift to weight; expressed in Gs.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Stall Speed
Minimum airspeed for level flight; increases with load factor.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Spin
Aggravated stall with continuous autorotation.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Autorotation
Continuous rotation about an axis due to aerodynamic forces.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Uncoordinated Flight
Aircraft not flying straight through the air.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Stalls, Spins & Load Factor
PARE for Spin Recovery: Power idle, Ailerons neutral, Rudder opposite, Elevator forward.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Stalls, Spins & Load Factor
The FAA exam often tests your understanding that a stall is always caused by exceeding the critical angle of attack, not by a specific airspeed. Keywords to spot: 'critical angle of attack', 'regardless of airspeed', 'load factor increases stall speed'.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Stalls, Spins & Load Factor
Believing a stall only occurs at low airspeeds; it can happen at any airspeed if the critical angle of attack is exceeded.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Stalls, Spins & Load Factor
Confusing a stall with a spin; a spin is an aggravated stall with autorotation.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Stalls, Spins & Load Factor
Failing to recognize that increased load factor (e.g., in turns) increases the stall speed, requiring higher speeds to avoid stalling.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Reciprocating Engine
Engine converting linear piston motion to rotational motion.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Four-Stroke Cycle
Engine cycle: intake, compression, power, exhaust.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Carburetor
Device mixing fuel and air for combustion.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Magneto
Engine-driven generator for ignition spark.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Spark Plug
Ignites fuel-air mixture in the cylinder.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Mixture Control
Adjusts fuel-to-air ratio for engine efficiency.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Carburetor Icing
Ice forming in carburetor, restricting airflow.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Fuel Strainer
Filters contaminants from fuel before engine.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Aircraft Engine, Fuel & Ignition Systems
For the four-stroke cycle: 'Suck, Squeeze, Bang, Blow' (Intake, Compression, Power, Exhaust).
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Aircraft Engine, Fuel & Ignition Systems
The exam often asks about the purpose of the dual ignition system (redundancy and improved combustion) and how to identify/correct carburetor icing (loss of RPM, roughness, apply carb heat). Memorize the four strokes of an engine cycle.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Aircraft Engine, Fuel & Ignition Systems
Forgetting to switch fuel tanks during long flights, leading to fuel starvation.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Aircraft Engine, Fuel & Ignition Systems
Not applying carburetor heat when symptoms of icing appear, causing engine failure.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Aircraft Engine, Fuel & Ignition Systems
Ignoring the importance of a thorough pre-flight fuel drain for contaminants.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Pitot-Static System
Measures air pressure for airspeed, altitude, VSI.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Altimeter
Measures altitude based on static pressure.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Airspeed Indicator
Measures difference between pitot and static pressure.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Gyroscopic Instruments
Use spinning rotors for attitude, heading, turn.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Rigidity in Space
Gyro property to remain fixed in orientation.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Precession
Gyro property where force applied acts 90° later.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Vacuum System
Engine-driven system powering gyroscopic instruments.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Electrical, Pitot-Static & Gyroscopic Instruments
An 'A' for Airspeed, Altimeter, and Attitude. Airspeed and Altimeter are Pitot-Static. Attitude is Gyro. The 'T' for Turn Coordinator and 'H' for Heading Indicator are also Gyro.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Electrical, Pitot-Static & Gyroscopic Instruments
For the exam, memorize which instruments are pitot-static (airspeed, altimeter, VSI) and which are gyroscopic (attitude, heading, turn coordinator). Understand their power sources (pitot-static is air pressure, gyros are vacuum/electric, others electric).
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Electrical, Pitot-Static & Gyroscopic Instruments
Confusing the power sources for different instruments (e.g., thinking the altimeter is electric).
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Electrical, Pitot-Static & Gyroscopic Instruments
Not understanding that a blocked pitot tube affects only the airspeed indicator, while a blocked static port affects all three pitot-static instruments.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Electrical, Pitot-Static & Gyroscopic Instruments
Forgetting to set the altimeter to local barometric pressure, leading to inaccurate altitude readings.
Aerodynamics and Aircraft Systems: How Airplanes Fly
Balance
The state of equilibrium of the aircraft.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Center of Gravity (CG)
The point where the entire weight of an aircraft is considered to be concentrated.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Datum
An imaginary vertical plane from which all horizontal distances are measured.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Arm
The horizontal distance from the datum to the center of gravity of an item.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Moment
The product of a weight multiplied by its arm (Weight × Arm).
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
CG Envelope
A chart showing the allowable center of gravity range for various gross weights.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Empty Weight
The weight of the aircraft including all fixed equipment and unusable fuel.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Weight and Balance: Essential for Safe Flight
Think of a seesaw: 'W'eight on one side, 'A'rm (distance) from the pivot, creates a 'M'oment. CG is where the seesaw balances!
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Weight and Balance: Essential for Safe Flight
Memorize the formula: CG = Total Moment / Total Weight. The FAA frequently tests your understanding of how changes in weight and location affect the CG, and the dangers of an out-of-limits CG.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Weight and Balance: Essential for Safe Flight
Forgetting to include all items (e.g., unusable fuel, oil, pilot/passengers, baggage) in the weight calculation.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Weight and Balance: Essential for Safe Flight
Incorrectly using arms (positive vs. negative) or misreading them from the POH.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Weight and Balance: Essential for Safe Flight
Failing to check both total weight and the calculated CG against the aircraft's limits in the CG envelope.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Takeoff Distance
The distance required to accelerate to liftoff speed and clear a 50-foot obstacle.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Landing Distance
The distance required to land and come to a complete stop from a 50-foot obstacle.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Headwind
Wind blowing against the direction of flight; improves performance.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Tailwind
Wind blowing in the direction of flight; degrades performance.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Runway Slope
The incline or decline of a runway surface.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Aircraft Configuration
The setup of an aircraft, e.g., flap settings, landing gear position.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Takeoff and Landing Performance Factors
Think 'HOT WET DOWN' for factors that increase landing distance: High temp/altitude, Weight, Tailwind, Wet/Soft field, Downhill runway.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Takeoff and Landing Performance Factors
The FAA exam often presents scenarios where you must identify the factor that will *increase* or *decrease* takeoff/landing distance. Keywords like 'high temperature,' 'high altitude,' 'heavy weight,' 'tailwind,' 'soft field,' or 'uphill runway' are common indicators of increased distance.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Takeoff and Landing Performance Factors
Underestimating the impact of density altitude on performance, especially on hot days or at high-elevation airports.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Takeoff and Landing Performance Factors
Failing to account for tailwinds on landing, which significantly increase ground speed and landing roll.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Takeoff and Landing Performance Factors
Not consulting the aircraft's POH performance charts for actual conditions, relying instead on 'rule of thumb' estimates.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Standard Atmosphere
Reference model: 15°C at sea level, 29.92" Hg pressure.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Performance Degradation
Reduced aircraft capability due to atmospheric conditions.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
True Airspeed
Actual speed of aircraft relative to the air mass.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Density Altitude Effects on Aircraft Performance
Think 'Hot, High, and Humid' for poor performance. These conditions make the air 'thin' and your plane 'tired'.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Density Altitude Effects on Aircraft Performance
The exam often asks about conditions that increase density altitude. Memorize that high temperature, high altitude, and high humidity all lead to higher density altitude and thus poorer aircraft performance.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Density Altitude Effects on Aircraft Performance
Confusing density altitude with pressure altitude or true altitude.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Density Altitude Effects on Aircraft Performance
Underestimating the performance impact of high density altitude, especially on takeoff.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Density Altitude Effects on Aircraft Performance
Forgetting that humidity also contributes to higher density altitude, albeit less significantly than temperature or altitude.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
POH/AFM
Pilot's Operating Handbook/Aircraft Flight Manual; legal document with aircraft info.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Vne
Never Exceed Speed; maximum speed for safe operation.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Performance Charts
Graphs predicting aircraft capabilities under various conditions.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Interpolation
Estimating a value between two known values on a chart.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Aircraft Limitations & Performance Charts
POH: 'P'repare 'O'perate 'H'andle – everything you need to prepare for, operate, and handle your aircraft.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Aircraft Limitations & Performance Charts
The FAA knowledge test often includes questions requiring you to interpret data from simplified performance charts. Pay close attention to the chart's title, units, and conditions (e.g., 'flaps up,' 'no wind'). Questions might ask for takeoff distance, landing distance, or cruise speed under specific conditions.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Aircraft Limitations & Performance Charts
Not accounting for wind components (headwind/tailwind) when calculating takeoff/landing distances.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Aircraft Limitations & Performance Charts
Forgetting to adjust for pressure altitude and temperature, leading to inaccurate performance predictions.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Aircraft Limitations & Performance Charts
Exceeding aircraft limitations due to lack of familiarity with the POH/AFM.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Aircraft Limitations & Performance Charts
Misinterpreting chart scales or units, leading to calculation errors.
Performance, Weight and Balance: Safe Flight Operations
Sectional Chart
Primary VFR navigation chart depicting terrain, airspace, and aids.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
NAVAID
Navigational Aid, such as VORs or NDBs, for guidance.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
VOR
VHF Omnidirectional Range, a ground-based radio navigation system.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
MEF
Maximum Elevation Figure, highest obstruction in a chart quadrant.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
Isogonic Line
Line on a chart connecting points of equal magnetic variation.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
Sectional Chart Symbols & Information
Blue is Big (Class B), Magenta is Medium (Class C). Think of the lines getting 'lighter' as the airspace becomes less restrictive.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
Sectional Chart Symbols & Information
The FAA exam frequently tests your ability to identify specific airspace boundaries (Class B, C, D) and their associated symbols (solid blue, solid magenta, dashed magenta). Also, know the symbols for controlled vs. uncontrolled airports and tall obstacles (especially those over 1000 feet AGL).
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
Sectional Chart Symbols & Information
Confusing Class C (solid magenta) and Class D (dashed magenta) airspace boundaries.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
Sectional Chart Symbols & Information
Misinterpreting obstacle heights, especially the difference between MSL and AGL values.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
Sectional Chart Symbols & Information
Failing to check Maximum Elevation Figures (MEFs) for safe altitude planning.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
CDI
Course Deviation Indicator; shows deviation from selected course.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
OBS
Omni Bearing Selector; knob to select desired VOR radial.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
Radial
Magnetic bearing FROM a VOR station.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
GPS
Global Positioning System; space-based navigation system.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
WAAS
Wide Area Augmentation System; enhances GPS accuracy and integrity.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
Line-of-sight
Radio signal limited by terrain and Earth's curvature.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
VOR Navigation & GPS Fundamentals
VOR: 'V'ery 'O'ften 'R'adiate 'F'rom 'S'tation (FROM Station). GPS: 'G'et 'P'osition 'S'atellites (needs satellites).
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
VOR Navigation & GPS Fundamentals
For the FAA knowledge test, remember that a VOR radial is always a magnetic bearing FROM the station. The TO/FROM indicator tells you if you are flying towards or away from the station on the selected course. For GPS, know that at least 4 satellites are needed for a 3D position (latitude, longitude, altitude).
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
VOR Navigation & GPS Fundamentals
Confusing 'TO' and 'FROM' indications: 'TO' means flying towards the station on the selected course; 'FROM' means flying away.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
VOR Navigation & GPS Fundamentals
Misinterpreting CDI deflection: If the needle is to the left, you need to turn left to intercept the course, regardless of your current heading.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
VOR Navigation & GPS Fundamentals
Forgetting VOR is line-of-sight: Its range is limited by altitude and terrain, unlike GPS which has global coverage.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
Groundspeed (GS)
Aircraft's speed relative to the ground.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
Wind Correction Angle (WCA)
Angle aircraft must be pointed into wind to maintain course.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B
Estimated Time En Route (ETE)
Predicted time to complete a flight segment.
Navigation and Flight Planning: Getting From A to B