ACS
Airman Certification Standards; FAA document for pilot testing.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Free knowledge base
FAA Instrument Rating Airplane (IRA) — key terms, tricks & tips
Everything from the course in one searchable place: 343 entries. Use it to review before a practice test or look up a word you forgot.
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PTS
Practical Test Standards; predecessor to the ACS.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Area of Operation
Major section within the ACS, e.g., Preflight Preparation.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Task
Specific activity within an Area of Operation, e.g., Weather Information.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Knowledge Element
What an applicant must know (K).
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Risk Management Element
How an applicant identifies and mitigates risks (R).
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Skill Element
What an applicant must perform (S).
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
DPE
Designated Pilot Examiner; conducts practical tests.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Understanding the Instrument Rating ACS
KRS: 'Knowledge Really Saves' – K for Knowledge, R for Risk Management, S for Skill. This helps remember the three core elements of every ACS task.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Understanding the Instrument Rating ACS
For the knowledge test, expect questions that test your understanding of ACS concepts, such as the purpose of the ACS or the types of elements it contains. Keywords like 'Airman Certification Standards' or 'Knowledge, Risk Management, Skill' are important to recognize. Remember that the ACS integrates all three elements.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Understanding the Instrument Rating ACS
Mistaking the ACS for just a list of maneuvers; it includes knowledge and risk management too.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Understanding the Instrument Rating ACS
Not using the current version of the ACS, leading to outdated study material.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Understanding the Instrument Rating ACS
Focusing only on the 'skill' elements and neglecting the 'knowledge' and 'risk management' aspects.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
IRA
Instrument Rating Airplane; the specific knowledge test.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Knowledge Test
Written multiple-choice exam on aeronautical knowledge.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Endorsement
Instructor's authorization to take the knowledge test.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Test Supplement
Booklet with charts/figures used during the exam.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Passing Score
Minimum 70% required to pass the FAA knowledge test.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Conquering the FAA Instrument Rating Knowledge Test
ACS: Always Consult Standards – for everything you need to know!
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Conquering the FAA Instrument Rating Knowledge Test
Memorize the passing score for the FAA knowledge test: 70%. Also, know that a valid instructor endorsement is required to take the test.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Conquering the FAA Instrument Rating Knowledge Test
Relying solely on memorizing practice test answers without understanding the underlying concepts.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Conquering the FAA Instrument Rating Knowledge Test
Not thoroughly reviewing the Airman Certification Standards (ACS) to ensure all topics are covered.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
Conquering the FAA Instrument Rating Knowledge Test
Failing to familiarize yourself with the test supplement (charts, figures) before test day.
Getting Started: Your Instrument Rating Journey
FAR Part 61
Regulations for pilot certification.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
FAR Part 91
General operating and flight rules.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
PIC
Pilot in Command, final authority.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
MEA
Minimum En Route Altitude.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
IFR Fuel Requirements
Destination + Alternate + 45 min reserve.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Aeronautical Experience
Logged flight time for rating.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Instrument Time
Flight solely by reference to instruments.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
FARs for Instrument Flight: Part 61 & 91
For IFR fuel, think 'D-A-R-T': Destination, Alternate, Reserve Time (45 minutes).
IFR Rules and Staying Current
FARs for Instrument Flight: Part 61 & 91
On the exam, pay close attention to specific numbers for aeronautical experience requirements (e.g., 50 hours PIC cross-country, 40 hours instrument time). Also, memorize the IFR fuel requirement formula: destination + alternate + 45 minutes.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
FARs for Instrument Flight: Part 61 & 91
Forgetting the 10 hours of airplane PIC cross-country within the 50-hour total.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
FARs for Instrument Flight: Part 61 & 91
Incorrectly calculating IFR fuel, especially forgetting the 45-minute reserve.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
FARs for Instrument Flight: Part 61 & 91
Not understanding the difference between MEA and obstacle clearance altitudes.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
6 HITS
Mnemonic for 6 approaches, holding, intercepting/tracking.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Instrument Currency
Legal ability to fly IFR/in IMC as PIC.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Grace Period
Additional 6 months to regain currency with instructor.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Instrument Proficiency Check (IPC)
Required to regain currency after 12 months of non-currency.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
FAR 61.57(c)
Regulation outlining instrument currency requirements.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Authorized Instructor
CFI with instrument rating, required for grace period/IPC.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Instrument Approach
Procedure flown to minimums solely by instruments.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Maintaining Instrument Currency: 6 HITS
Remember '6 HITS' – 6 Instrument Approaches, Holding procedures and tasks, Intercepting and Tracking courses.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Maintaining Instrument Currency: 6 HITS
The exam often asks about the exact timeframe for currency (6 calendar months) and the tasks (6 approaches, holding, intercepting/tracking). Pay close attention to whether an instructor is required (grace period, IPC, or simulator/FTD use). Keywords to spot are 'preceding 6 calendar months' and 'preceding 12 calendar months'.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Maintaining Instrument Currency: 6 HITS
Forgetting that '6 HITS' must be completed 'solely by reference to instruments'.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Maintaining Instrument Currency: 6 HITS
Confusing the initial 6-month period with the 6-month grace period, and when an instructor is required.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Maintaining Instrument Currency: 6 HITS
Believing that just flying part of an approach or an approach without descending to minimums counts for currency.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Maintaining Instrument Currency: 6 HITS
Not understanding that the 6-month grace period still requires an instructor to observe the 6 HITS.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
FAR 91.205(d)
Regulation listing minimum equipment for IFR flight.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
GRABCARDD
Mnemonic for required IFR equipment.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Pitot-Static System
System for airspeed, altitude, and vertical speed.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Transponder
Aircraft device broadcasting position and altitude to ATC.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
ELT
Emergency Locator Transmitter, signals aircraft crash location.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
VOR Check
Verification of VOR receiver accuracy, required every 30 days.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
24 Calendar Months
Inspection interval for altimeter/static system and transponder.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
12 Calendar Months
Inspection interval for ELT.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
IFR Equipment Requirements & Inspections
GRABCARDD helps remember IFR equipment: Generator, Radios, Altimeter, Ball, Clock, Attitude, Rate-of-turn, Directional gyro, DME.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
IFR Equipment Requirements & Inspections
The exam frequently tests the specific intervals for inspections. Memorize '24 calendar months' for altimeter/static and transponder, '12 calendar months' for ELT, and '30 days' for VOR checks. Pay attention to 'calendar months' vs. 'hours'.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
IFR Equipment Requirements & Inspections
Confusing 'calendar months' with 'hours' for inspection intervals.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
IFR Equipment Requirements & Inspections
Forgetting the 30-day VOR check requirement, especially for IFR flights.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
IFR Equipment Requirements & Inspections
Not understanding that DME is only required above FL240 when using VOR navigation.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
IFR Equipment Requirements & Inspections
Incorrectly recalling the ELT battery replacement criteria (1 hour cumulative use OR 50% useful life).
IFR Rules and Staying Current
1-2-3 Rule
Rule for determining when an alternate airport is required.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Alternate Airport
Backup airport for landing if destination is unavailable.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
ETA
Estimated Time of Arrival at the destination airport.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Precision Approach
Instrument approach providing both vertical and lateral guidance.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Non-Precision Approach
Instrument approach providing only lateral guidance.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Ceiling
Height of the lowest broken or overcast cloud layer.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Visibility
Greatest horizontal distance objects can be seen.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Alternate Airport Requirements (1-2-3 Rule)
Remember the '1-2-3 Rule' as 'One hour before, one hour after, two thousand feet, three miles visibility.'
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Alternate Airport Requirements (1-2-3 Rule)
Memorize the exact numbers for the 1-2-3 rule (2,000 ft ceiling, 3 SM visibility) and the standard alternate minimums for precision (600-2) and non-precision (800-2) approaches. The exam often presents scenarios where you must apply these numbers precisely.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Alternate Airport Requirements (1-2-3 Rule)
Forgetting to check the weather forecast for the entire 2-hour window (1 hour before to 1 hour after ETA).
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Alternate Airport Requirements (1-2-3 Rule)
Confusing destination weather minimums (2000-3) with alternate airport weather minimums (600-2 or 800-2).
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Alternate Airport Requirements (1-2-3 Rule)
Not checking for published non-standard alternate minimums for a specific airport.
IFR Rules and Staying Current
Supercooled Water
Liquid water below 0°C that freezes on impact.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Rime Ice
Rough, opaque ice, forms from small droplets.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Clear Ice
Glossy, transparent ice, forms from large droplets.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Structural Icing
Ice on aircraft exterior surfaces.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Induction Icing
Ice in engine air intake system.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Thunderstorm
Severe weather with strong updrafts/downdrafts.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Microburst
Localized column of sinking air, causes severe wind shear.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
SLD
Supercooled Large Droplets, highly hazardous for icing.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
IFR Weather Hazards: Icing & Thunderstorms
ICE: I'm Cold, Exit! (When you encounter icing, get out of it!)
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
IFR Weather Hazards: Icing & Thunderstorms
For the exam, remember that structural icing requires visible moisture and temperatures at or below freezing. Clear ice is generally considered the most hazardous due to its difficulty to detect and significant aerodynamic impact. Thunderstorms should be avoided by at least 20 nautical miles, and never flown under.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
IFR Weather Hazards: Icing & Thunderstorms
Underestimating the danger of clear ice, which is hard to see but severely affects aerodynamics.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
IFR Weather Hazards: Icing & Thunderstorms
Attempting to fly through or under a thunderstorm, rather than diverting around it by a safe distance.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
IFR Weather Hazards: Icing & Thunderstorms
Failing to report icing conditions to ATC, which deprives other pilots of critical safety information.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Fog
A cloud at or near the surface, reducing visibility below 5/8 SM.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Radiation Fog
Forms on clear, calm nights as ground cools by radiation.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Advection Fog
Forms when warm, moist air moves over a cooler surface.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Runway Visual Range (RVR)
Horizontal distance a pilot can see down the runway.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
METAR
Current weather observation report for an aerodrome.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
TAF
Terminal Aerodrome Forecast, predicting weather for an airport.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Fog, Visibility, and Ceiling Considerations
Remember 'VFR on Top, IFR in the Soup!' for when you're above or in the clouds.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Fog, Visibility, and Ceiling Considerations
Memorize the standard IFR takeoff minimums: 1 statute mile visibility for aircraft with two engines or less, and 1/2 statute mile visibility for aircraft with more than two engines, unless otherwise specified.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Fog, Visibility, and Ceiling Considerations
Confusing prevailing visibility with RVR; RVR is a more precise runway-specific measurement.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Fog, Visibility, and Ceiling Considerations
Not checking both visibility and ceiling against approach minimums; both must be met.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Fog, Visibility, and Ceiling Considerations
Failing to consider an alternate airport when destination weather is forecast to be marginal.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
AIRMET
Airmen's Meteorological Information; advisories for all aircraft, less severe.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
SIGMET
Significant Meteorological Information; advisories for all aircraft, severe weather.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Convective SIGMET
Advisory for severe thunderstorms and associated phenomena.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Zulu Time
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), used in aviation weather.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Decoding Weather Reports & Forecasts
STZ for AIRMETs: Sierra (IFR), Tango (Turbulence/Wind), Zulu (Z-Icing).
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Decoding Weather Reports & Forecasts
For the exam, be able to decode all components of a METAR and TAF. Memorize the criteria for each type of AIRMET (Sierra, Tango, Zulu) and the specific conditions that trigger a SIGMET (severe icing, severe/extreme turbulence, dust/sandstorms, volcanic ash) and Convective SIGMETs (severe thunderstorms).
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Decoding Weather Reports & Forecasts
Confusing METAR (current) with TAF (forecast).
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Decoding Weather Reports & Forecasts
Underestimating the significance of an AIRMET or SIGMET.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Decoding Weather Reports & Forecasts
Not checking the valid times for TAFs and advisories, leading to outdated information.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
PIREP
Pilot Report; actual weather conditions encountered by a pilot.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
UA
Routine PIREP; reports common weather conditions.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
UUA
Urgent PIREP; reports hazardous or potentially hazardous conditions.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
/OV
Location element in a PIREP.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
/FL
Flight Level or altitude element in a PIREP.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
/TB
Turbulence element in a PIREP.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
/IC
Icing element in a PIREP.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Dissemination
The process of distributing PIREPs to other pilots and agencies.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Pilot Reports (PIREPs) and Their Importance
To remember PIREP elements: 'P-I-R-E-P spells Pilot Info, Real-time, Every Pilot needs!'
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Pilot Reports (PIREPs) and Their Importance
The FAA Instrument Rating knowledge test often presents scenarios where you must interpret PIREPs or decide when to issue an urgent PIREP. Memorize the difference between UA and UUA and the conditions that warrant each. Pay attention to the /IC and /TB elements.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Pilot Reports (PIREPs) and Their Importance
Ignoring PIREPs because they contradict a forecast.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Pilot Reports (PIREPs) and Their Importance
Not issuing an urgent PIREP when encountering hazardous conditions.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Pilot Reports (PIREPs) and Their Importance
Providing incomplete or unclear information when issuing a PIREP.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Standard Briefing
Comprehensive preflight weather briefing.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Abbreviated Briefing
Updates a previous weather briefing.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Outlook Briefing
General weather trends for flights >6 hours away.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Flight Service Station (FSS)
Primary source for official weather briefings.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Go/No-Go Decision
Pilot's decision to proceed or not proceed with a flight.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Personal Minimums
Self-imposed limits for flight operations.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
NOTAMs
Notices to Airmen, critical flight information.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Weather Briefings and Decision Making
For a Standard Briefing, remember 'ADDS WING': Adverse conditions, Departure, Destination, Synopsis, Winds, Icing, NOTAMs, Go/no-go.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Weather Briefings and Decision Making
The FAA Instrument Rating Airplane knowledge test often asks about the specific information a pilot should provide to a briefer when requesting a standard briefing. Memorize the key items: VFR/IFR, aircraft ID, departure/destination, route, proposed departure time, ETE, and altitude.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Weather Briefings and Decision Making
Not providing all necessary information to the briefer, leading to an incomplete briefing.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Weather Briefings and Decision Making
Failing to ask clarifying questions when information is unclear or ambiguous.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Weather Briefings and Decision Making
Ignoring personal minimums or aircraft limitations when making a go/no-go decision.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Weather Briefings and Decision Making
Relying solely on automated weather sources without cross-referencing or seeking a live briefer for complex situations.
Weather Wisdom for IFR Pilots
Attitude Instrument Flying
Controlling aircraft solely by instruments.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Control and Performance
Concept: control attitude, observe performance.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Primary Instrument
Most important for a specific parameter.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Supporting Instrument
Provides additional, corroborating data.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Instrument Scan
Continuous observation of instruments.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
T-Scan
Common instrument scanning pattern.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Attitude Indicator
Shows pitch and bank directly.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Attitude Instrument Flying Fundamentals
CAP: Control with Attitude, Performance with others. Remember CAP to keep your instrument scan organized!
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Attitude Instrument Flying Fundamentals
On the exam, expect questions about identifying primary and supporting instruments for various flight maneuvers (e.g., level flight, climb, descent, turn). Memorize the control and performance concept and how it applies to each phase of flight. Keywords to spot: 'primary instrument,' 'supporting instrument,' 'control instrument,' 'performance instrument.'
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Attitude Instrument Flying Fundamentals
Fixating on a single instrument instead of maintaining a continuous scan.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Attitude Instrument Flying Fundamentals
Misinterpreting instrument indications, leading to incorrect control inputs.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Attitude Instrument Flying Fundamentals
Failing to understand the dynamic relationship between primary and supporting instruments.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Attitude Instrument Flying Fundamentals
Ignoring the attitude indicator and trying to 'chase' other instruments.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Rigidity in Space
Gyroscope's tendency to maintain its plane of rotation.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Precession
Gyro's reaction 90° from an applied force.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Attitude Indicator (AI)
Gyroscopic instrument showing pitch and roll attitude.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Heading Indicator (HI)
Gyroscopic instrument providing stable heading reference.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Turn Coordinator (TC)
Gyroscopic instrument indicating rate of turn and roll.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Vacuum System
Aircraft system using suction to power gyroscopes.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Tumbling
Gyro instability when exceeding pitch/roll limits.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Drift
Slow, erroneous movement of a gyroscopic instrument.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Gyroscopic Instruments: Principles & Errors
Remember 'A Head Turn' for the three gyroscopic instruments: Attitude, Heading, Turn Coordinator.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Gyroscopic Instruments: Principles & Errors
For the exam, remember that the heading indicator is subject to precession and must be reset periodically (typically every 10-15 minutes) by reference to the magnetic compass. The attitude indicator should erect within 5 minutes of engine start.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Gyroscopic Instruments: Principles & Errors
Forgetting to periodically align the heading indicator with the magnetic compass, leading to significant heading errors.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Gyroscopic Instruments: Principles & Errors
Misinterpreting a slow vacuum gauge reading as normal, rather than an indication of impending gyroscopic instrument failure.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Gyroscopic Instruments: Principles & Errors
Confusing the principles of rigidity in space and precession, or which instrument uses which principle primarily.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Pitot Tube
Measures ram air pressure for airspeed.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Static Port
Measures ambient atmospheric pressure for altimeter, VSI, airspeed.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Pitot Heat
Electrical heater to prevent/remove ice from pitot tube.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Alternate Static Source
Backup static pressure source, usually from inside the cabin.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Ram Air Pressure
Pressure created by air entering the pitot tube.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Dynamic Pressure
Difference between ram and static pressure, used for airspeed.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Blocked Pitot Tube
Causes airspeed indicator errors.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Blocked Static Port
Affects altimeter, VSI, and airspeed.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Pitot-Static System: Failures & Indications
P.S.A. - Pitot Static Airspeed. If Pitot is blocked, Airspeed is wrong. If Static is blocked, All are wrong (Altimeter, VSI, Airspeed).
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Pitot-Static System: Failures & Indications
For the exam, memorize the exact instrument indications for a completely blocked pitot tube (airspeed reads zero if drain clear, acts like altimeter if drain blocked) and a blocked static port (altimeter freezes, VSI zero, airspeed inaccurate). Keywords: 'pitot blockage', 'static port iced'.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Pitot-Static System: Failures & Indications
Failing to turn on pitot heat in visible moisture or freezing conditions, leading to a pitot tube blockage.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Pitot-Static System: Failures & Indications
Misinterpreting a frozen altimeter and VSI as an instrument failure rather than a static port blockage.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Pitot-Static System: Failures & Indications
Forgetting that the alternate static source introduces known errors (slightly high readings) to the instruments.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Magnetic Variation
Angular difference between true north and magnetic north.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Magnetic Deviation
Compass error from aircraft's internal magnetic fields.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Magnetic Dip
Tendency of compass needle to dip toward Earth's poles.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Acceleration Error
Compass indicates North when accelerating on East/West headings.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Deceleration Error
Compass indicates South when decelerating on East/West headings.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Northerly Turning Error
Compass lags in turns from North, leads in turns from South.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Oscillation Error
Erratic compass movement due to turbulence or maneuvers.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Compass Correction Card
Table showing deviation corrections for various headings.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Magnetic Compass Errors & Corrections
Imagine a 'V-D-A-N-O' party: Variation is the VIP, Deviation is the DJ, Acceleration/Deceleration are the Dancers, Northerly Turning is the Noodler, and Oscillation is the Out-of-control guest!
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Magnetic Compass Errors & Corrections
For the exam, remember the mnemonics: 'East is least (subtract), West is best (add)' for variation. For dip errors, 'ANDS' (Accelerate North, Decelerate South) and 'UNOS' (Undershoot North, Overshoot South) are critical. Be prepared to identify which error is described in a scenario.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Magnetic Compass Errors & Corrections
Forgetting to apply deviation corrections from the compass card.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Magnetic Compass Errors & Corrections
Confusing variation (natural) with deviation (aircraft-induced).
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
Magnetic Compass Errors & Corrections
Misapplying ANDS or UNOS, especially during critical phases of flight.
Mastering Your Flight Instruments
VOR
VHF Omnidirectional Range; ground-based radio navigation aid.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Radial
A magnetic bearing extending outward from a VOR station.
Navigating the IFR Environment
OBS
Omni Bearing Selector; knob to select desired VOR course.
Navigating the IFR Environment
CDI
Course Deviation Indicator; needle showing deviation from selected course.
Navigating the IFR Environment
TO/FROM Indicator
Shows if selected course is to or from the VOR station.
Navigating the IFR Environment
VOT
VOR Test Signal; a ground facility for checking VOR accuracy.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Airborne Checkpoint
Designated point in the air for VOR accuracy check.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Dual VOR Check
Comparing two VOR receivers in the same aircraft.
Navigating the IFR Environment
VOR Navigation & VOR Check Procedures
Think of VOR checks like a '4-6-4-6' rule for tolerances: VOT (4), Ground (4), Airborne (6), Prominent Ground (6), and Dual VOR is the difference (4).
Navigating the IFR Environment
VOR Navigation & VOR Check Procedures
Memorize the VOR check tolerances: VOT and Ground Checkpoint are +/- 4 degrees. Airborne Checkpoint and VOR over a prominent ground point are +/- 6 degrees. Dual VOR check is a difference of no more than 4 degrees. Questions often involve identifying the correct tolerance for a specific check type.
Navigating the IFR Environment
VOR Navigation & VOR Check Procedures
Confusing 'TO' and 'FROM' indications, leading to flying in the wrong direction relative to the VOR.
Navigating the IFR Environment
VOR Navigation & VOR Check Procedures
Forgetting the 30-day VOR check requirement for IFR flight.
Navigating the IFR Environment
VOR Navigation & VOR Check Procedures
Mixing up the different VOR check tolerances (e.g., applying +/- 6 degrees to a ground checkpoint).
Navigating the IFR Environment
Localizer
Provides lateral guidance to the runway.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Glideslope
Provides vertical guidance for descent.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Marker Beacons
Provide specific distance indications along the approach.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Outer Marker (OM)
Indicates glideslope intercept point, blue light.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Middle Marker (MM)
Indicates decision height, amber light.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Inner Marker (IM)
Indicates Cat II DH, white light.
Navigating the IFR Environment
ILS Components: Localizer, Glideslope, Markers
OMG, I'M Blue, Amber, White! (Outer, Middle, Inner Marker colors)
Navigating the IFR Environment
ILS Components: Localizer, Glideslope, Markers
For the exam, remember localizer frequencies are 108.10-111.95 MHz (odd tenths), and glideslope frequencies are paired. Know the color and tone for each marker: OM (blue, low), MM (amber, medium), IM (white, high).
Navigating the IFR Environment
ILS Components: Localizer, Glideslope, Markers
Confusing localizer and glideslope indications: Remember the localizer is vertical (left/right) and glideslope is horizontal (up/down) on the CDI/HSI.
Navigating the IFR Environment
ILS Components: Localizer, Glideslope, Markers
Ignoring marker beacon indications: These provide crucial positional awareness, especially in IMC.
Navigating the IFR Environment
ILS Components: Localizer, Glideslope, Markers
Failing to identify a glideslope failure and transition to a localizer-only approach: Always be ready for a non-precision backup.
Navigating the IFR Environment
GPS
Global Positioning System; satellite-based navigation.
Navigating the IFR Environment
RNAV
Area Navigation; permits flexible flight paths.
Navigating the IFR Environment
WAAS
Wide Area Augmentation System; enhances GPS accuracy.
Navigating the IFR Environment
RAIM
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring; checks GPS signal integrity.
Navigating the IFR Environment
LPV
Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance; a precision WAAS approach.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Navigation Database
Contains airport, waypoint, and procedure data for GPS.
Navigating the IFR Environment
AFMS
Aircraft Flight Manual Supplement; details GPS operating limitations.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Integrity
The trust one can place in the correctness of the information.
Navigating the IFR Environment
GPS/RNAV: WAAS, RAIM, and Database Management
WAAS adds 'V' for Vertical guidance. RAIM 'R' detects 'R'eliability issues.
Navigating the IFR Environment
GPS/RNAV: WAAS, RAIM, and Database Management
The FAA Instrument Rating knowledge test frequently asks about the purpose of RAIM and WAAS. Remember: RAIM monitors GPS signal integrity, while WAAS improves accuracy and provides vertical guidance for precision approaches (like LPV). Also, know that navigation databases must be current for IFR operations.
Navigating the IFR Environment
GPS/RNAV: WAAS, RAIM, and Database Management
Assuming WAAS is always available and negating the need for RAIM checks (it's not always available, and non-WAAS units still need RAIM).
Navigating the IFR Environment
GPS/RNAV: WAAS, RAIM, and Database Management
Flying an IFR approach with an expired navigation database, which is illegal and unsafe.
Navigating the IFR Environment
GPS/RNAV: WAAS, RAIM, and Database Management
Not understanding the difference between LNAV, LNAV/VNAV, and LPV minimums in relation to GPS capabilities.
Navigating the IFR Environment
DME
Distance Measuring Equipment; measures slant range distance.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Slant Range
Direct line-of-sight distance from aircraft to ground station.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Groundspeed
Speed over the ground, calculated by DME.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Time-to-Station
Estimated time to reach the DME station.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Interrogator
Aircraft component that sends DME pulses.
Navigating the IFR Environment
DME Arc
A flight path maintaining a constant DME distance.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Co-located
DME station physically located with another navaid.
Navigating the IFR Environment
DME: Principles and Usage
S.L.A.N.T. Range: **S**hort **L**ine **A**cross **N**ot **T**rue ground.
Navigating the IFR Environment
DME: Principles and Usage
The FAA exam frequently tests the difference between slant range and ground distance. Remember that DME always displays slant range. The difference is greatest when close to the station and at high altitudes. Also, know that DME provides groundspeed and time-to-station.
Navigating the IFR Environment
DME: Principles and Usage
Confusing slant range distance with horizontal ground distance, especially when close to the station or at high altitude.
Navigating the IFR Environment
DME: Principles and Usage
Failing to cross-check DME readings with other navigation sources, leading to reliance on potentially erroneous data.
Navigating the IFR Environment
DME: Principles and Usage
Not understanding that DME provides groundspeed and time-to-station, which are useful for flight planning and ATC reporting.
Navigating the IFR Environment
Departure Procedure (DP)
Pre-planned IFR route for obstacle clearance and ATC efficiency.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Obstacle Departure Procedure (ODP)
Textual DP for obstacle clearance, pilot's option.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Standard Instrument Departure (SID)
Graphical DP for ATC efficiency and obstacle clearance, requires clearance.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Climb Gradient
Rate of climb required, expressed in feet per nautical mile (FPNM).
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP)
Publication containing DPs, ODPs, and approach procedures.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Obstacle Identification Surface (OIS)
Imaginary surface used to identify obstacles for departure procedures.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
NO SID
Phrase used to decline a SID in a flight plan or to ATC.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Departure Procedures (DPs) and ODPs
Think 'O' for ODP = Obstacle and Optional (pilot's choice). Think 'S' for SID = Standardized and Specific (ATC assigned).
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Departure Procedures (DPs) and ODPs
For the exam, remember that ODPs are primarily for obstacle avoidance and are textual, while SIDs are primarily for ATC efficiency and are graphical. Both provide obstacle clearance. ODPs do not require an ATC clearance, but SIDs do. A common test question involves identifying the primary purpose of each.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Departure Procedures (DPs) and ODPs
Not checking for ODPs or SIDs during pre-flight planning.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Departure Procedures (DPs) and ODPs
Assuming an ATC clearance automatically provides obstacle clearance without verifying against published procedures.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Departure Procedures (DPs) and ODPs
Confusing the primary purpose or format of ODPs versus SIDs.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
MEA (Minimum En Route Altitude)
Lowest altitude assuring nav signal coverage and obstacle clearance.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
MOCA (Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude)
Lowest altitude assuring obstacle clearance; nav signal within 22 NM.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
MCA (Minimum Crossing Altitude)
Lowest altitude to cross a fix when proceeding to a higher MEA.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
MRA (Minimum Reception Altitude)
Lowest altitude for reliable signal reception to identify a fix.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
En Route Chart
Aeronautical chart depicting airways, navigation aids, and altitudes.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Obstacle Clearance
Maintaining a safe vertical distance from terrain and man-made structures.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Navigational Signal Coverage
Reliable reception of signals from VORs or other navigation aids.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
En Route Charts: MEA, MOCA, MCA, MRA
My Old Car's Radio (MEA, MOCA, MCA, MRA) helps me remember the order and importance of these altitudes for safe IFR flight.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
En Route Charts: MEA, MOCA, MCA, MRA
For the exam, memorize the exact definitions and chart depictions for MEA, MOCA, MCA, and MRA. Pay close attention to the '22 nautical miles' rule for MOCA and the purpose of the 'X' vs. 'R' flag symbols.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
En Route Charts: MEA, MOCA, MCA, MRA
Confusing MOCA's 22 NM signal reception guarantee with MEA's full coverage.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
En Route Charts: MEA, MOCA, MCA, MRA
Failing to climb to an MCA before reaching the fix, resulting in being below the next segment's MEA.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
En Route Charts: MEA, MOCA, MCA, MRA
Ignoring an MRA, leading to inability to identify a required fix for navigation.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
STAR
Standard Terminal Arrival Route; pre-planned IFR arrival procedure.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Transition
Segment of a STAR connecting en route fix to common route.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Common Route
Shared path on a STAR leading to the airport terminal area.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Descend Via
ATC clearance authorizing descent per published STAR restrictions.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
RNAV STAR
STAR requiring Area Navigation (RNAV) equipped aircraft.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Altitude Restriction
Mandatory altitude to cross a fix (at, above, or below).
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Speed Restriction
Mandatory indicated airspeed limit on a STAR.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs) and Clearances
STARs are like 'STAIRS' to the airport: they guide you down in an organized, step-by-step manner with specific altitude 'steps' to follow.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs) and Clearances
The exam often tests your understanding of 'descend via' clearances. Memorize that a 'descend via' clearance requires compliance with all published lateral and vertical restrictions, but a specific altitude assignment (e.g., 'descend and maintain 5,000') cancels all published altitude restrictions on the STAR.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs) and Clearances
Failing to comply with published speed restrictions on a STAR, assuming they are advisory.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs) and Clearances
Not understanding that a specific altitude assignment from ATC cancels all published altitude restrictions on a STAR, even with a 'descend via' clearance.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs) and Clearances
Attempting to fly an RNAV STAR without the required RNAV equipment or pilot proficiency.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Initial Approach Fix (IAF)
Point where initial approach segment begins.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Final Approach Fix (FAF)
Point where final approach segment begins.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Missed Approach Point (MAP)
Point where missed approach begins if no visual.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Decision Altitude (DA)
Lowest MSL altitude for precision approach decision.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Decision Height (DH)
Lowest AGL height for precision approach decision.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA)
Lowest MSL altitude for non-precision approach.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Aircraft Category
Classification by approach speed, affecting minimums.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Runway Environment
Visual aids allowing continuation below minimums.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Instrument Approach Procedures: Components & Minimums
MDA: 'Must Descend No More'. DA/DH: 'Decision At/Height'. This helps differentiate when you can level off versus when you must decide.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Instrument Approach Procedures: Components & Minimums
Memorize the definitions and applications of DA/DH vs. MDA. The exam frequently presents scenarios where you must choose the correct action based on reaching one of these minimums without visual contact. Pay attention to whether the approach is precision or non-precision.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Instrument Approach Procedures: Components & Minimums
Mistaking MDA for DA/DH: MDA allows you to level off and fly horizontally until the MAP; DA/DH requires an immediate decision at that point, either to continue or go missed.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Instrument Approach Procedures: Components & Minimums
Descending below MDA/DA/DH without the required visual references: This is a serious violation and unsafe. Always execute the missed approach if the runway environment is not clearly and continuously in sight.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Instrument Approach Procedures: Components & Minimums
Ignoring aircraft category for minimums: Using minimums for a different aircraft category can lead to unsafe operations, either too high or too low for your aircraft's performance.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Decision Altitude (DA)/Height (DH)
The altitude/height on a precision approach where a decision to land or go around is made.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Holding Fix
A specified geographical location used for holding aircraft.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Expected Further Clearance (EFC) Time
The time at which ATC expects to issue further clearance to a holding aircraft.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Holding Pattern
A racetrack-shaped course flown by aircraft to delay arrival.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Standard Holding Pattern
A holding pattern with right turns and one-minute (or specified distance) legs.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Non-Standard Holding Pattern
A holding pattern with left turns.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Missed Approach Procedures & Holding Entries
For holding entries, think 'PTD': Parallel, Teardrop, Direct. Imagine you're 'Putting The D'own on the correct entry!
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Missed Approach Procedures & Holding Entries
For the FAA Instrument Rating knowledge test, memorize the three standard holding pattern entry procedures: direct, teardrop, and parallel. Be able to identify which entry is appropriate given an aircraft's heading relative to the holding course. Also, know the conditions requiring a missed approach and that the missed approach procedure is always published on the approach chart.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Missed Approach Procedures & Holding Entries
Delaying the decision to execute a missed approach past the DA/MAP when visual references are not established.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Missed Approach Procedures & Holding Entries
Incorrectly identifying the type of holding pattern entry (direct, teardrop, parallel) based on the approach to the fix.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Missed Approach Procedures & Holding Entries
Failing to compensate for wind drift in a holding pattern, leading to improper leg lengths or deviations from course.
IFR Procedures and Chart Interpretation
Spatial Disorientation
Inability to determine position, attitude, and motion relative to Earth.
Pilot Health and Decision Making
Vestibular System
Inner ear organs for balance and sensing motion.
Pilot Health and Decision Making
The Leans
Sensation of banking opposite to actual roll.
Pilot Health and Decision Making
Coriolis Illusion
Head movement in turn causes tumbling sensation.
Pilot Health and Decision Making
Somatogravic Illusion
Acceleration feels like pitching up.
Pilot Health and Decision Making
Black Hole Approach
Visual illusion causing lower approach over dark terrain.
Pilot Health and Decision Making